Table 2.
Pooled prevalence of selected comorbidities among patients with primary headaches and comparison with 2019 GBD Estimates
| Associated condition category | Associated condition | No. of studies | Pooled proportion (95 % CI) | GBD Estimates Mean (95 % UI) | Comparison |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cancers | Any cancer | 4 | 5 % (0–13 %) | 6.5 % (5.6–7.6 %) | |
| Cardiovascular diseases | Ischemic heart disease | 19 | 7 % (5–10 %) | 2.6 % (2.4–2.9 %) | Higher in headaches |
| Stroke/Cerebrovascular | 30 | 5 % (3–7 %) | 1.4 % (1.2–1.5 %) | Higher in headaches | |
| Hypertension | 48 | 24 % (22–26 %) | Risk factor in GBD | ||
| Atrial fibrillation and flutter | 6 | 2 % (1–3 %) | 0.80 % (0.61–1.01 %) | ||
| Other cardiovascular and circulatory diseases | 23 | 9 % (7–11 %) | – | ||
| Digestive diseases | Upper digestive system diseases | 4 | 10 % (4–19 %) | 10.5 % (9.4–11.6 %) | |
| Irritable bowel syndrome | 4 | 19 % (1–53 %) | 0.07 % (0.06–0.07 %) | Higher in headaches | |
| Other digestive diseases | 7 | 14 % (1–37 %) | – | ||
| Metabolic and kidney diseases | Diabetes mellitus | 39 | 6 % (5–7 %) | 6.2 % (5.7–6.7 %) | |
| Chronic kidney disease | 5 | 3 % (0–10 %) | 9.4 % (8.7–10.0 %) | ||
| Obesity | 26 | 21 % (17–26 %) | Risk factor in GBD | ||
| Hyperlipidemia | 14 | 15 % (8–24 %) | Not in GBD | ||
| Hypercholesterolemia | 8 | 26 % (12–43 %) | Risk factor in GBD | ||
| Thyroid diseases | 9 | 12 % (8–16 %) | Not in GBD | ||
| Other Metabolic/Kidney disease | 11 | 15 % (10–22 %) | – | ||
| Musculoskeletal disorders | Arthritis | 8 | 12 % (9–16 %) | 7.1 % (6.4–7.9 %) | Higher in headaches |
| Back pain | 7 | 46 % (20–72 %) | 7.6 % (6.8–8.6 %) | Higher in headaches | |
| Fibromyalgia | 9 | 26 % (8–50 %) | Not in GBD | ||
| Other musculoskeletal disorders | 4 | 27 % (5–52 %) | – | ||
| Neurological disorders | Parkinson disease | 5 | 1 % (1–2 %) | 0.11 % (0.10–0.13 %) | Higher in headaches |
| Idiopathic epilepsy | 7 | 2 % (1–2 %) | 0.34 % (0.26–0.42 %) | Higher in headaches | |
| Sleep disorder | 30 | 48 % (42–54 %) | Not in GBD | ||
| Restless leg syndrome | 16 | 20 % (13–27 %) | Not in GBD | ||
| Other neurological disorders | 19 | 15 % (10–20 %) | – | ||
| Mental health disorders | Depressive disorders | 51 | 23 % (20–26 %) | 3.8 % (3.4–4.2 %) | Higher in headaches |
| Bipolar disorder | 6 | 5 % (0–12 %) | 0.53 % (0.44–0.63 %) | ||
| Anxiety disorders | 40 | 25 % (22–28 %) | 4.1 % (3.4–4.8 %) | Higher in headaches | |
| Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder | 7 | 15 % (6–28 %) | Not in GBD | ||
| Other mental disorders | 17 | 25 % (15–36 %) | – | ||
| Respiratory diseases | Asthma | 8 | 8 % (3–13 %) | 3.5 % (3.0-4.2 %) | |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 5 | 6 % (0–17 %) | 2.8 % (2.7-3.0 %) | ||
| Other chronic respiratory diseases | 6 | 13 % (0–41 %) | – | ||
| Sense organ disease | Any sense organ disease | 6 | 26 % (10–47 %) | 23.7 % (22.5–24.9 %) | |
| Skin and subcutaneous disease | Any skin and subcutaneous disease | 4 | 5 % (3–7 %) | 27.2 % (26.5–28.0 %) | Higher in GBD |
| Substance use disorders | Any substance use disorder | 10 | 6 % (0–17 %) | 2.2 % (1.9–2.4 %) | |
| Other NCDs | Oral disorders | 9 | 67 % (40–89 %) | 46.8 % (43.0-50.7 %) | |
| Hemoglobinopathies and hemolytic anemias | 4 | 1 % (1–2 %) | 28.4 % (27.3–29.6 %) | Higher in GBD | |
| Other disorders (Congenital birth defects & Gynecological diseases) | 4 | 28 % (5–60 %) | – | ||
| Allergies | 8 | 22 % (12–34 %) | 23.7 % (22.5–24.9 %) |