Fig. 1.

Multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged models depicting the relation between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior across three income-to-poverty groups. Fig. 1a depicts results from the 0–99% poverty group, Fig. 1b depicts results from the 100–199% poverty group, and Fig. 1c depicts results from the 200+% poverty group. Figs. 1a and b were constrained to be equal, while Fig. 1c is unconstrained. Un-standardized coefficients are shown. All models controlled for child sex, maternal age, maternal education, maternal race/ethnicity, maternal relationship status with child’s father, and maternal depression. Dashed paths have a p-value > .05.

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001