Table 1.
Analysis of differences in study variable values by poverty group.
| Total Sample | Poverty Group | p | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (N = 4,149) | 0–99% (n = 1,510) | 100–199% (n = 1,100) | 200+% (n = 1,539) | ||
| Maternal spanking, age 1, % | .278 | ||||
| 0 times in the past month | 72.39 | 70.57 | 72.45 | 74.09 | |
| Once or twice or a few times in the past month | 21.28 | 23.04 | 21.18 | 19.66 | |
| Few times a week or every day in the past month | 6.33 | 6.39 | 6.37 | 6.25 | |
| Maternal spanking, age 3, % | .001 | ||||
| 0 times in the past month | 46.80 | 50.11 | 48.24 | 42.66 | |
| Once or twice or a few times in the past month | 41.49 | 39.19 | 39.12 | 45.34 | |
| Few times a week or every day in the past month | 11.71 | 10.70 | 12.65 | 12.00 | |
| Maternal spanking, age 5, % | .130 | ||||
| 0 times in the past month | 53.01 | 54.57 | 52.55 | 51.82 | |
| 1–3 times in the past month | 41.69 | 39.28 | 42.74 | 43.28 | |
| Few times or every day in the past month | 5.31 | 6.16 | 4.70 | 4.90 | |
| Maternal spanking, age 9, % | .234 | ||||
| 0 times in the past year | 52.32 | 50.05 | 51.77 | 54.77 | |
| Low frequency spanking in the past year | 43.94 | 45.95 | 44.20 | 41.94 | |
| High frequency spanking in the past year | 3.74 | 4.01 | 4.03 | 3.29 | |
| Child externalizing behavior, age 3 | 0.65 | 0.70 | 0.68 | 0.58 | <.001 |
| Child externalizing behavior, age 5 | 0.53 | 0.58 | 0.55 | 0.48 | <.001 |
| Child externalizing behavior, age 9 | 0.24 | 0.28 | 0.26 | 0.21 | <.001 |
| Maternal race or ethnicity, % | |||||
| White | 20.85 | 7.91 | 16.39 | 36.67 | <.001 |
| Black | 48.67 | 60.37 | 48.91 | 37.06 | <.001 |
| Hispanic | 27.03 | 29.65 | 31.60 | 21.20 | <.001 |
| Other | 3.45 | 2.06 | 3.10 | 5.07 | <.001 |
| Maternal relationship status with biological father, baseline, % | |||||
| Married | 23.43 | 7.68 | 17.09 | 43.40 | <.001 |
| Cohabitating | 36.62 | 38.24 | 39.64 | 32.88 | <.001 |
| Not married or cohabitating | 39.95 | 54.08 | 43.27 | 23.72 | <.001 |
| Maternal age, baseline | 25.09 | 23.88 | 24.19 | 26.91 | <.001 |
| Maternal education, baseline, % | |||||
| Less than high school | 34.48 | 52.92 | 35.97 | 15.33 | <.001 |
| High school | 31.22 | 33.29 | 35.88 | 25.86 | <.001 |
| Some college | 24.20 | 13.20 | 25.50 | 34.05 | <.001 |
| College graduate | 10.11 | 0.60 | 2.64 | 24.76 | <.001 |
| Maternal depression, age 1, % | <.001 | ||||
| Yes | 15.54 | 17.05 | 17.83 | 12.48 | |
| No | 84.46 | 82.95 | 82.17 | 87.52 | |
| Child sex, % | .930 | ||||
| Male | 51.96 | 51.79 | 52.45 | 51.79 | |
| Female | 48.04 | 48.21 | 47.55 | 48.21 | |
| Child temperament, age 1 | 1.84 | 1.95 | 1.89 | 1.69 | <.001 |
Results are presented as means, unless otherwise specified. Child externalizing behavior ranged from 0 to 2. Maternal age ranged from 15 to 43 years. Child temperament ranged from 0 to 4. Chi-square tests were used for categorical variables. ANOVAs were used for continuous variables, and Bonferroni corrections were used to adjust for multiple testing.