Table 1.

Proinflammatory cytokines and their effect on breast cancer.

Cytokine	Effects	Sources
TNF-α	Activates inflammation, induces angiogenesis, increases MMP production, creates inflammatory environment within stromal cells	52,59,80,98,118
IFN-γ	Promotes inflammatory environment, recruits macrophages to the tumor site, can inhibit the macrophage from processing the tumor antigen	61
GM-CSF	Proinflammatory cytokine, activates macrophages to TAMs, associated with EMT and poor prognosis	105
IL-1β	Creates proinflammatory, proangiogenic environment	46
IL-6	Creates a proinflammatory environment, expands cancer stem cell population, inhibits cancer cell apoptosis	12,57,62
IL-8	Promotes angiogenesis, promotes cancer cell growth and survival, promotes breast cancer cell invasion	107
IL-12	Anti-angiogenic, decreases VEGF and MMP levels, causes breast cancer regression	26
IL-18	Increases immunosuppression, promotes migration and invasion	64,82
IL-23	Expands and maintains subset of Treg cell population	35
IL-27	Creates proinflammatory, proangiogenic environment	72