Figure 1.

LCFAs activate signaling pathways and mediate immune cell functions. (A) Oleic and palmitic acids activate intracellular signaling pathways. Oleic acid reduces the release of cytokines, whereas palmitic acid increases the release of cytokines. Linoleic acid reduces viability and inhibits proliferation in T-cells. However, there is no evidence of the participation of the FFA1 receptor in those responses in this cell type. Omega-3 fatty acids inhibit cytokines release, migration, and proliferation. However, the participation of the FFA4 receptor has not been demonstrated in these cells. (B) Oleic and linoleic acids stimulate different signaling pathways and release inflammatory products via the FFA1 receptor in bovine neutrophils. Palmitic acid increases NETosis. However, the role of the FFA1 receptor has not been demonstrated. DHA induces intracellular calcium via the FFA4 receptor in neutrophils and increases release of inflammatory products, independent of the FFA4 receptor. (C) Oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids activate signaling pathways and stimulate or inhibit the release of inflammatory mediators in macrophages. However, the participation of the FFA1 receptor has not been described yet. Omega-3 fatty acids inhibit intracellular signaling and release of inflammatory products through the FFA4 receptor in macrophages. Solid lines indicate cellular responses induced by fatty acids in which the participation of the FFA receptor has been demonstrated. Dashed lines represent responses induced by fatty acids where there is no evidence of the participation of the FFA receptors. Question marks indicate that FFA receptor involvement has not been demonstrated or FFA receptors have not been detected (created with BioRender.com).