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The evolution of (i) electrolytes for anodic oxidation (a–c), (ii) functions of the anodised titanium (a) for high energy interaction of bone-to-implant contact (BIC), (b) to promote cell ingrowth, nutrient circulation, and augmented BIC matrix, (c) to interact with bone nanocrystals and (b & c) enhanced BIC matrix of bone anchorage, and (d) as a drug-eluting reservoir. (micrographs redrawn and adapted with permission from (a) [62], (b) [116], (c) [135] (d) [136]).
