FIGURE 1.

Interaction between heart and extracardiac organs. Heart failure and inflammatory responses are mutually reinforced with each other. Upon injury, splenic monocytes could mobilize and accumulate in myocardium to induce cardiac injury. Stimulus such as elevated circulating inflammatory cytokines, adipokines, and peripheral organs hypoperfusion could induce renal dysfunction, gut microbiota disorder, and skeletal muscle catabolism, which further exacerbate cardiac dysfunction.