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An example of simulation results with 3D FEM frameworks for pure torsional SMA elements: (A) Torsional PE behavior of a centimetre-size SMA tube form actuator for different models (Abaqus) (Zhu et al., 2013). (B) Torsional PE behavior of millimetre-size SMA wire form actuators for different diameters (Abaqus), the figure is reproduced from Chapman et al. (2011).
