Table 1.

List of plant species (Plants and plant-derived products) used in COVID-19 treatment mentioned by the participants in the study.

Serial No.	Scientific name /Family/Voucher No.	English name	Bengali name	Habit	Source of collection	Part Used	Preparation	Symptoms (COVID-19) treated	Administration	Method of use/Recipe	Side effects mentioned	FC	RFC	ΣUR	UV
	Allium cepa L. Amaryllidaceae BUH-CoV-01	Onion	Piyaz (পিয়াজ)	Herb	DC and/M	Bulb, Leaf	Raw; Mashed	•Cold •Coughs •Flu •Fever •Headache •Sore throat •Body pain •Difficulty breathing	Oral and / steam inhalation	1/4 or 1/5 part of the onion is cut off into pieces and a large portion of the onion is placed under the patient's nose and inhaled volatile compounds through the nose, holding it for 1–2 s and exhaling naturally through the mouth and cutting pieces steamed in hot water and vapor is slowly breathed by nose and mouth. Moreover, onion leaves and bulbs were eaten as vegetables with hot rice.	NO	285	0.654	8	0.028
	Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae BUH-CoV-04	Garlic	Rosun (রসুন)	Herb	M	Bulb	Raw; Mashed	•Body pain •Sore throat •Diarrhoea •Cough •Cold •Fever •Difficulty breathing	Oral and / steam inhalation	About 5–6 raw garlic slices were eaten every morning with fried rice and mashed garlic was eaten with hot rice. Moreover, raw garlic slices are cut into pieces and steamed in hot water and vapor is slowly breathed by nose and mouth. Besides, the crushed bulb is boiled with tea and drunk.	NO	429	0.984	7	0.015
	Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae BUH-CoV-02	Pineapple	Anaras (আনারস)	Herb	M	Fruit	Fresh/ Juice	•Cough •Fever •Flu	Oral	Fresh Pineapple or Juice was eaten regularly.	NO	177	0.406	3	0.017
	Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Meliaceae BUH-CoV-03	Neem tree	Neem (নিম)	Tree	NH	Leaf sap	Juice	•Fever •Cough •Diarrhoea •Body pain •Fatigue •Thirsts •Loss of taste/smell •Asthma	Oral	Juice made from neem leaf sap was eaten 3 times a day.	NO	421	0.966	8	0.019
	Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze Theaceae -	Green tea /Black tea	Cha pata (চা পাতা)	Shrub	M	Leaf	Boiling	•Fever •Dry cough •Diarrhoea •Muscle or body pain •Chest pain •Fatigue •Sore throat •Loss of smell •Difficulty breath •Loss of speech	Oral	Green tea made with ginger, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, bay leaves, and lemon juice was eaten 5–6 times a day.	NO	436	1.000	10	0.023
	Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae BUH-CoV-05	Chile pepper	Kaca morich (কাঁচা মরিচ)	Herb	DC and/M	Green fruit	Raw; Mashed	•Asthma •Dry cough •Cold	Oral	Raw green Chile was eaten withhot rice. Besides, raw chili pastewas eaten with hot rice.	NO	155	0.356	3	0.019
	Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. Lauraceae BUH-CoV-07	Indian bay leaf	Tejpata (তেজপাতা)	Tree	DC and/M	Leaf	Boiling/Decoction	•Headache •Diarrhoea •Dry cough •Fever •Body ache •Stimulant •Cold •Difficulty breathing	Steam inhalation and /oral	Bay leaves, Cardamom, cumin, black pepper, clove, and cinnamon were boiled altogether in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth at 3–4 times a day. Some even mentioned that they drunk this mixed water directly in their mouths.	NO	211	0.484	8	0.038
	Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (Old botanical synonym Cinnamomum zeylanicum) Lauraceae -	Cinnamon	Darucini (দারুচিনি)	Tree	M	Bark	Boiling/Decoction	•Fever •Body ache •Chest pain •Dry cough •Diarrhoea •Difficulty breathing	Steam inhalation and / oral	Cinnamon, cumin, cardamom, black pepper, clove, and bay leaves were boiled altogether in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth 3–4 times in a day. Some even mentioned that they drunk this mixed water directly in their mouths.	NO	369	0.846	6	0.016
	Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle Rutaceae BUH-CoV-06	Key lime	Kaghzilebu (কাগজি লেবু)	Shrub	DC and/M	Fruit	Juice/Boiling	•Loss of taste or smell •Vomiting •Sore throat •Headache •Cold •Fever •Flu •Fatigue/tiredness	Oral	The sherbet was made from a mixture of lemon juice and sugar and eaten 3 times a day. Moreover, Citrus skins were boiled with Ginger, Clove, Black pepper, Cardamom, Cumin, Cinnamon, and bay leaf, and the steam was inhaled 3–4 times a day.	NO	396	0.908	8	0.020
	Citrus reticulata Blanco Rutaceae -	Mandarin Orange	Komola (কমলা)	Tree	DC and/M	Fruit	Juice; Fresh	•Flu •Fever •Fatigue/tiredness •Sore throat •Loss of taste	Oral	About 2–3 orange were eaten daily.	NO	255	0.585	5	0.019
	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae -	Sweet orange	Malta (মালটা)	Tree	M	Fruit	Juice; Fresh	•Flu •Fever •Cold •Fatigue/tiredness •Sore throat •Loss of taste	Oral	About 2–3 orange were eaten daily.	NO	286	0.656	6	0.021
	Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae BUH-CoV-08	Coriander	Dhonia (ধনিয়া)	Herb	DC and/M	Leaf; Dried seed	Mashed	•Difficulty breathing •Cough •Sore throat •Loss of appetite •Loss of taste	Oral and /steam inhalation	Coriander leaf paste was madeand eaten with hot rice. Dried seeds were boiled with cumin, cinnamon, cardamom, black pepper, clove, and bay leaves in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth 3–4 times a day.	NO	333	0.764	5	0.015
	Cuminum cyminum L. Apiaceae -	Cumin	Jira (জিরা)	Herb	M	Dried Seed	Boiling/Decoction; Powder	•Dry cough •Cold •Flu •Difficulty breathing	Steam inhalation and /oral	Cumin, cinnamon, cardamom, black pepper, clove, and bay leaves were boiled together in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth 3–4 times a day. Some even mentioned that they drunk this mixed water directly in their mouths.	NO	346	0.794	4	0.012
	Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton Zingiberaceae -	True cardamom	Elach (এলাচ)	Herb	M	Seed	Boiling/Decoction	•Dry cough •Cold •Flu •Difficulty breathing	Steam inhalation and /oral	Cardamom, cumin, black pepper, clove, cinnamon, and bay leaves were boiled altogether in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth 3–4 times a day. Some even mentioned that they drunk this mixed water directly in their mouths.	NO	397	0.911	4	0.011
	Malus domestica Borkh. Rosaceae -	Apple	Apple (আপেল)	Tree	M	Fruit	Fresh	•Fatigue/tiredness •Fever •Loss of taste/smell	Oral	About 2–3 apples were eaten daily.	NO	309	0.709	3	0.009
	Mentha × piperita L. Lamiaceae BUH-CoV-09	Peppermint	Pudina (পুদিনা)	Herb	DC and/M	Leaf	Raw/Fresh; Mashed	•Cold •Dry cough •Flu •Difficulty breathing •Sore throat •Fever •Loss of taste/smell	Oral	About 5–6 raw mint leaves were eaten directly every morning and the mint leaf paste was eaten with hot rice.	NO	397	0.911	7	0.017
	Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae -	Black Cumin	Kalojira (কালোজিরা)	Herb	M	Seed	Raw; Mashed	•Dry coughs •Colds •Fever •Loss of appetite •Immune-system stimulant •Sore throat •Fatigue	Oral	Black Cumin seeds were eatenorally every morning. Mash made from black cumin seeds was also eaten with hot rice and honey.	NO	396	0.908	7	0.017
	Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Old botanical synonym Ocimum sanctum) Lamiaceae BUH-CoV-10	Holy basil	Tulsi (তুলসি)	Herb	DC and/NH	Leaf	Raw/Fresh; Mashed	•Dry cough •Cold •Flu •Sore throat •Fever •Headache •Chest pain •Difficulty breathing •Diarrhoea	Oral	About 5–6 raw basil leaves were eaten directly every morning and the basil leaf paste was eaten with hot rice.	NO	403	0.924	9	0.022
	Phyllanthus emblica L. Phyllanthaceae BUH-CoV-11	Amla	Amloki (আমলকী)	Tree	DC and/M	Fruit	Fresh	•Loss of taste or smell •Sore throat •Fever •Fatigue •Headache •Skin disease •Diarrhoea •Cough	Oral	Raw Amla was eaten regularly with salt.	NO	355	0.814	8	0.022
	Piper nigrum L. Piperaceae -	Black pepper	Gol morich (গোলমরিচ)	Climber	M	Dried Fruit	Boiling/Decoction; Powder	•Difficulty breathing •Fever •Body ache •Dry cough •Cold	Steam inhalation and /oral	Black pepper, cumin, clove, cardamom, cinnamon, and bay leaves were boiled altogether in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth 3–4 times in a day. Some even mentioned that they drank this mixed water directly in their mouths.	NO	393	0.901	5	0,013
	Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae BUH-CoV-12	Guava	Peyara (পেয়ারা)	Tree	DC and/M	Fruit	Fresh	•Diarrhoea •Fatigue •Loss of taste •Fever	Oral	About 2–3 fresh green guavas were eaten daily.	NO	133	0.305	6	0.030
	Punica granatum L. Lythraceae BUH-CoV-13	Pomegranate	Dalim (ডালিম)	Shrub	DC and/M	Fruit	Fresh	•Loss of taste •Coughs •Diarrhoea •Cold •Flu •Thirst •Sore throat •Fever	Oral	Fresh Pomegranate was eaten.	NO	361	0.828	8	0.022
	Spondias mombin L. Anacardiaceae BUH-CoV-14	Hog plum	Amra (আমড়া)	Tree	DC and/M	Fruit	Fresh	•Loss of taste or smell •Sore throat •Fever •Cold •Flu	Oral	Raw fresh Hog plum was eaten regularly.	NO	313	0.718	5	0.016
	Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry Myrtaceae -	Clove	Lobongo (লবঙ্গ)	Tree	M	Dried Flower bud	Boiling /Decoction	•Difficulty breathing •Dry cough •Cold •Flu •Loss of speech •Chest pain	Steam inhalation and /oral	Clove, cumin, black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, and bay leaves were boiled altogether in water and its vapor was steam inhaled through the nose and mouth 3–4 times a day. Some even mentioned that they drunk this mixed water directly in their mouths.	NO	411	0.943	6	0.015
	Vitex negundo L. Lamiaceae BUH-CoV-15	Chinese chaste tree	Nishinda (নিশিন্দা)	Shrub	NH	Leaf	Powder/Juice	•Cold •Difficulty breath •Cough •Fever •Headache •Weakness •Joint pain or body pain	Oral	Vitex negundo L. leaves powder or leaf juice were taken orally or with green/ginger tea 2–3 times daily.	NO	297	0.681	7	0.023
	Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae BUH-CoV-16	Ginger	Ada (আদা)	Herb	DC and/M	Rhizome	Boiling; Juice	•Voice loss •Headache •Sore throats •Dry cough •Loss of smell •Cold •Flue	Oral	Juice prepared from ginger rhizome was mixed with honey and taken 4 times a day. Besides, ginger rhizomes were sliced into pieces and mixed with boiled green tea, and taken 5–8 times a day.	NO	421	0.966	7	0.017

Collection source = DC (Domestically cultivated); M (Market); NH (Natural Habitat).

FC = Frequency Citation (Number of informants mentioning the use of the species).

FC = Relative Frequency Citation.

UR = Use Reports.

UV = Use Value.