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. 2021 Jul 16;11:14618. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-94078-8

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Defect creation under deep UV light illumination. (1) Band-to-band excitation. (2) Electron–hole (e–h) recombination. (3) Breaking of weak bonds to form neutral oxygen vacancies (V_O⁰) using energy released from e–h recombination and from the heat lost during the descent of electrons from higher to lower states in the conduction band (E_C). (4) Photo-creation of V_O⁰ due to the high energy photons. (5) Formation of peroxides (O–O) via hole capture or bonding of two interstitial oxygen atoms. (6) Ionization of V_O⁰ to V_O²⁺ via hole capture. (7) Photoionization of V_O⁰ to V_O²⁺. Structural relaxation raises the energy level of V_O²⁺ relative to V_O⁰. (8) Formation of metal-hydrogen bonds (M–H) via electron capture. This event controls the maximum electron concentration. The numbers do not represent the order in which these events occur.