Table 1.
Summary of porcine AKI-related literature concerning ischemia, infection, and nephrotoxicity
| First Author | Country | Publication Year | Journal | Animal | Age, mo | Body Weight, kg | Method | Sample Size | Outcome | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ischemia-reperfusion | ||||||||||
| Jayle | France | 2006 | Kidney International | Large white pigs | 3−4 | 30−35 | Clamping left renal pedicle for 45/60 min with a vascular clamp followed by a right nephrectomy | 60 | Creatinine clearance rate significantly decreased at day 1 and begin to recover afterward | (52) |
| Barrera-Chimal | France | 2017 | Journal of the American Society of Nephrology | White male pigs | NA | 42−51 | Clamping both renal pedicles for 60 min with a nontraumatic vascular clamp | NA | Plasma creatinine significantly increased at day 1 and begin to recover afterward | (53) |
| Silberstein | United States | 2013 | BJU International | Yorkshire farm pigs | 1.5−2 | 27−36 | Unilateral renal ischemia with left hilar clamping of timed duration (15, 30, and 60 min) | 12 | Median urine volume was lower (P = 0.04) at 6, 12, 24, and 48 h and median NGAL concentration was higher (P = 0.04) at 12 and 48 h compared with the control group | (37) |
| Baldwin | United States | 2004 | Urology | Farm pigs | NA | 46−69 | Unilateral laparoscopic right nephrectomy and, 2 wk later, left hilar clamp for 0, 30, 60, or 90 min | 16 | SCr level rose initially on days 2 and 4 in the 60- and 90-min ischemia groups and returned to baseline by day 7 | (38) |
| Bechara | Brazil | 2016 | Acta Cirurgica Brasileira | Pigs | NA | 20 | 30 min of warm ischemia by arteriovenous/arterial clamping of left kidney vessels | 24 | Renal warm ischemia of 30 min by arterial clamping did not caused significant glomerular damage, but arteriovenous clamping caused significant glomerular loss in a swine model | (49) |
| Brunswig-Spickenheier | Germany | 2010 | Stem Cells and Development | German hybrid pigs | 3 | 29−45 | Two balloon catheters were introduced into both renal arteries via the femoral arteries, and both renal arteries were occluded for 110 min by balloon inflation | 24 | Successful induction of AKI by balloon catheter occlusion of renal arteries and subsequent reperfusion were monitored angiographically as well as hemodynamically | (39) |
| Amdisen | Denmark | 2016 | PLoS One | Landrace pigs | NA | 42 | Unilateral renal ischemia-reperfusion injury was induced by clamping the left renal artery over a 2-h period | 20 | Unilateral kidney ischemia-reperfusion resulted in an immediate ∼50% GFR reduction, associated with a 4-fold increase in urinary NGAL-excretion | (54) |
| Gardner | United Kingdom | 2016 | American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology | Pigs | NA | 55−65 | Bilateral renal artery cross-clamping (40 min) with 48-h postsurgical recovery | 35 | 40 min of bilateral renal artery occlusion led to an increase (48%) in plasma creatinine that peaked at 24 h and an increase in the urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio that peaked at 2 h | (40) |
| Malagrino | Brazil | 2017 | Journal of Proteomics | Pigs | 2−3 | 15−20 | A balloon catheter was introduced and inflated for 120 min (ischemia), followed by deflation (reperfusion) for 24 h | 5 | Only two animals showed levels of SCr above 150% of baseline | (42) |
| Matejkova | Germany | 2013 | Intensive Care Medicine | Cross-breed of Rapacz farm pig | 13−20 | 53−85 | 120 min of aortic occlusion by an aortic balloon catheter | 20 | Ischemia-reperfusion caused AKI with reduced creatinine clearance, increased fractional Na+ excretion and NGAL levels, and moderate to severe glomerular and tubular damage | (45) |
| Castellano | Italy | 2018 | Frontiers in Immunology | Large white pigs | 4 | 20 | Clamping the renal artery for 30 min followed by reperfusion | 10 | Oliguric kidney injury | (46) |
| Sepsis | ||||||||||
| Duburcq | France | 2018 | Shock | Large white pigs | 2 | 18−25 | Administration of 5 μg/kg/min Escherichia coli LPS intravenously | 10 | Endotoxic shock | (55) |
| Lima | The Netherlands/Italy | 2018 | Critical Care Medicine | Crossbred Landrace × Yorkshire pigs | 2 | 28 | Sepsis was induced through continuous intravenous infusion of LPS at 2 µg/kg/h | 15 | Increase in creatinine during shock and resuscitation | (56) |
| Castellano | Italy | 2014 | Critical Care | Domestic swine | 7 | 58 | 10 mL of saline solution containing 300 μg/kg LPS was infused | 28 | Acute tubulointerstitial fibrosis occurred within 9 h from LPS injection | (57) |
| Vassal | France | 2015 | Acta Anaesthesiology Scandinavica | Piglets | 2.5−3.5 | 20−25 | Intravenous infusion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa | 17 | A significant decrease in GFR was observed | (58) |
| Matejovic | Czech Republic | 2016 | Shock | Domestic Pigs | NA | 32− 0 | Continuous infusion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa | 17 | 43% reduction in glomerular filtration | (59) |
| Barth | Germany | 2008 | Critical Care Medicine | Domestic Pigs | NA | NA | 0.5 g/kg of autologous feces were suspended in 100 mL saline and cultivated at 38°C until the Matijevic induction of peritonitis | 20 | Septic shock | (60) |
| Merz | Germany | 2018 | Intensive Care Medicine Experimental | Pigs | 15−30 | 69 | 1 g/kg of autologous feces was collected during premedication, dissolved in 500 mL of 0.9 % saline, incubated at 38 °C for 12 h, and then infused into the abdominal cavity | 13 | Septic shock | (61) |
| Wang | China | 2015 | International Urology and Nephrology | Hybridized pigs | NA | 23.5−27.9 | Cecal ligation and puncture and clamping of the renal artery | 17 | Significantly higher renal function marker creatinine and blood urea nitrogen 24 h after surgery | (62) |
| Nephrotoxicity | ||||||||||
| Cui | China | 2019 | Shock | Chinese experimental mini-pigs | 3 | 8−10 | 80 mg/kg gentamicin sulfate intramuscularly daily for 10 days | 18 | AKI was well developed after 10 days of drug infusion | (63) |
| Robbins | United Kingdom/United States | 1992 | Cancer Chemotherapy Pharmacology | Large white pigs | 10 | NA | Single intravenous infusion of 1.5, 2, or 2.5 mg/kg (i.e., 90, 120, and 150 mg/m2) cisplatin | 12 | Significant cisplatin-induced reduction in GFR over the 24-wk period following drug treatment | (64) |
| Santiago | Spain | 2016 | PLoS One | Maryland pigs | 2−3 | 9 | Infused cisplatin to piglets through the peripheral vein in the Plow ear at doses of 2, 3, and 5 mg/kg | 41 | SCr significantly rose 48 h after cisplatin administration and largely fell back to the predose level in a week | (65) |
| Wu | China | 2019 | Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications | Miniature pigs | 3 | 10.4 ± 0.23 | Injection of 25 mL/kg iohexol (350 mg iodine/mL) after dehydration | 16 | Increased blood levels of blood urea nitrogen, SCr, serum and urinary β-microglobulin, and injured kidney tissue, dilated tubules and foamy degeneration | (66) |
| Xu | China | 2020 | International Immunopharmacology | Miniature pig | 3 | NA | Iohexol (350 mg/mL) was injected via the external jugular vein at 25 mL/kg | 10 | Increased serum levels of blood urea nitrogen, SCr, and β-microglobulin and urinary levels of β-microglobulin and renal fibrosis and injury scores | (67) |
AKI, acute kidney injury; GFR, glomerular filtration rate; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; NA, not applicable; NGAL, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin; SCr, serum creatinine.