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. 2020 Sep 23;8(5):nwaa244. doi: 10.1093/nsr/nwaa244

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© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of China Science Publishing & Media Ltd.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Figure 1. — Direct (red arrows) and higher-order interactions (blue arrows) of neighbouring trees on a focal tree (the brown one). The parameter quantifies the direct effect of a neighbour (individual p of species j) on the focal tree (individual m of species i). The direct interaction occurs only when a neighbour (j_p) is located within a maximum radius (R) of i_m (solid red arrows). The parameter quantifies the higher-order effect of a neighbour (individual q of species k) on the focal tree through another neighbour (individual p of species j). Higher-order interaction occurs only when j_p is located within the maximum radius (R) of i_m and k_q is located within the maximum radius (R) of j_p (solid blue arrows). Dashed arrows indicate direct interactions and higher-order interactions that are not considered when a neighbour is located outside the maximum radius (R) of the focal tree or its neighbour.

Inline graphic — Direct (red arrows) and higher-order interactions (blue arrows) of neighbouring trees on a focal tree (the brown one). The parameter quantifies the direct effect of a neighbour (individual p of species j) on the focal tree (individual m of species i). The direct interaction occurs only when a neighbour (j_p) is located within a maximum radius (R) of i_m (solid red arrows). The parameter quantifies the higher-order effect of a neighbour (individual q of species k) on the focal tree through another neighbour (individual p of species j). Higher-order interaction occurs only when j_p is located within the maximum radius (R) of i_m and k_q is located within the maximum radius (R) of j_p (solid blue arrows). Dashed arrows indicate direct interactions and higher-order interactions that are not considered when a neighbour is located outside the maximum radius (R) of the focal tree or its neighbour.