Table 1.
Chronological listing of DBS treatment for addiction studies included in the review
| Studies | n | Participants | Follow-up period | DBS targets | DBS parameters | Clinical effects | Adverse effects |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kuhn et al. (2007) [42] | 1 | Alcohol-dependent; intractable agoraphobia | 1 year | Bilateral NAc | 90 μs, 130 Hz, 3–4.5 V | Reduction of alcohol use | No side effects |
| Müller et al. (2009) [43] | 3 | Alcohol-dependent | 1 year | Bilateral NAc | 90 μs, 130 Hz, 3.5/4.5 V | Two participants maintained abstinence, while the other relapsed | Hypomania |
| Kuhn et al. (2011) [44] | 1 | Alcohol-dependent | 1 year | Bilateral NAc | 120 μs, 130 Hz, 5.5 V | Reduction in alcohol use | NS |
| Müller et al. (2016) [45] | 5 | Alcohol-dependent | 4–8 years | Bilateral NAc | 90 μs, 130 Hz, 3.5/4.5 V | Two patients maintained abstinence for >7 years and the others relapsed | Hypomania |
| Voges et al. (2013) [46] | 5 | Alcohol-dependent | 31–47 months | Bilateral NAc | 90 μs, 130 Hz, 4.5 V | Two participants maintained abstinence for >4 years, one showed a reduction in alcohol use and two relapsed | Hypomania |
| De Ridder et al. (2016) [47] | 1 | Alcohol-dependent | 18 months | Bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate/supplementary motor area | 1000 μs, 3 Hz, 1.5 mA | The participant maintained abstinence for >18 months | NS |
| De Ridder et al. (2017) [48] | 1 | Alcohol-dependent; refractory OCD; anxiety; depression | 9 months | Bilateral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex | 3-Hz burst mode | Modest reduction in alcohol use | NS |
| Kuhn et al. (2009) [49] | 10 | Smokers with refractory Tourette's syndrome, OCD or anxiety disorders | 30 months | Unilateral/bilateral NAc | 90/180 μs, 130/140/145 Hz, 3–6.5 V | A higher rate of successful smoking cessation than general population | NS |
| Mantione et al. (2010) [50] | 1 | Smokers with refractory OCD and obesity | 2 years | Bilateral NAc | 90 μs, 185 Hz, 3.5 V | The participant lost weight and stopped smoking | NS |
| Zhou et al. (2011) [51] | 1 | Heroin-dependent | 6 years | Bilateral NAc | 90 μs, 145 Hz, 0.8–2.5 V | The participant stopped drug abuse completely | Mild confusion; urine incontinence |
| Valencia-Alfonso et al. (2012) [52] | 1 | Heroin-dependent | 6 months | Bilateral borders of the internal capsule and nucleus accumbens | 90 μs, 180 Hz, 3.5 V | The participant remained drug-free for >6 months (except for one relapse) | NS |
| Kuhn et al. (2014) [53] | 2 | Heroin-dependent; various drug abuse | 1/2 years | Bilateral NAc | 90/120 μs, 130/140 Hz, 4.5/5.0 V | Patients remained off heroin (except for one relapse) | Epileptic seizure |
| Chen et al. (2018) [54] | 8 | Heroin-dependent | 2 years | Bilateral NAc and the neighboring anterior limb of the internal capsule | 150–240 μs, 130–185 Hz, 1.5–7.0 V | Five participants remained abstinent for >3 years and two relapsed | Intracranial hemorrhage; memory decline; dizziness; agitation/irritability; sweating; difficulty in falling asleep |
| Zhang et al. (2018) [60] | 1 | Heroin-dependent; hepatitis C; syphilis; antisocial personality disorder | 3 months | Bilateral ventral capsule/ventral striatum | 90 μs, 130 Hz, 2.5–5.5 V | The participant died from a heroin overdose | / |
| Goncalves-Ferreira et al. (2016) [55] | 1 | Cocaine-dependent; various drug abuse | 2.5 years | Bilateral posterior-medial part of NAc and neighboring BNSTs | 150 μs, 130/150 Hz, 2.0–4.0 V | Reduction in cocaine use | Warmness; sweating; flushing; occasional metallic taste; transient weight gain; diminished libido |
| Zhang et al. (2019) [56] | 1 | MA-dependent | 1 year | Bilateral NAc and ventral capsule | 90 μs, 130 Hz, 2.5 V | The participant remained drug-free and his social functions were improved | No side effects |
| Ge et al. (2019) [57] | 2 | MA-dependent | 1.5/2.5 years | Bilateral NAc and the neighboring anterior limb of the internal capsule | 210/240 μs, 150/165 Hz, 2.5/3.3 V | One participant remained abstinent, while the other relapsed | Insomnia; teeth grinding; hypomania |
DBS, deep-brain stimulation; OCD, obsessive-compulsive disorder; STN, subthalamic nucleus; MA, methamphetamine; NAc, nucleus accumbens; NS, not specified.