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Characterizations of alginate, a) Chemical structures of D-mannuronic acids (Mblocks), L-guluronic acids (G-blocks), and copolymer repeating unit; b) Two ionic gelation mechanisms (internal and external) of alginate hydrogels and “Egg-box” formation in presence of crosslinking divalent cations such as Ca2+; Schematic illustration of alginate modifications: c) interpenetrating polymer network (IPN), and d) chemical modification for ligand presentation.
