Table 4.

In vitro and in vivo studies on the effects of exogenous ES on the proliferative and remodeling stages of wound healing.

Study Design	Type of ES	Exposure Duration	Experimented on	Key Outcome(s)	Reference
RCT	DW	14 days	20 healthy subjects, served as own control	Increase in VEGF, collagen, epidermal cells, and cell apoptotic markers	[43]
RCT	DW	14–20 days	40 healthy subjects, served as own control	Reduced wound volume, increased perfusion and vascularity	[44]
In vitro	Pulsed DC	At 4, 8, and 24 h	Human umbilical vein endothelial cell cultures	Increase in endothelial cell migration and VEGF production	[45]
In vitro	DC	At 2, 4, and 6 h	Human fibroblast cells in a wound model	Increase in FGF and differentiation of fibroblasts	[46]
In vitro	DC	10 min	Fibronectin coated and non-fibronectin coated dermal fibroblast cells	Increased random migration of fibroblast cells, no increase in dermal fibroblast gene expression	[47]
In vitro	AC	12 h	Dermal cell matrix	Dermal fibroblasts entered into the growth phase of cell cycle with continuous ES exposure	[48]
In vitro	DC and DW	16 days	Punch biopsies on sample human skin tissues	Increase in epidermis thickness and keratinocyte proliferation	[49]