. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Oct 1.

Published in final edited form as: J Acad Nutr Diet. 2021 Jan 22;121(10):2035–2045. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2020.12.020

Table 2.

Least square means and standard errors for measures of vegetable intake at mid- and post-intervention, by study group, among 297 urban, WIC-enrolled adults participating in a farm-to-WIC intervention^a,b

	Study Group, Least Square Mean ± Standard Error
Intake Measure	Intervention^c	Control^d	Mean difference (95% CI)^e	P value
Objectively measured intake (Veggie Meter® scores)^f
Mid-intervention	227.11 ± 9.91	269.98 ± 10.06	−42.87 (−65.25, −20.49)	.001
Post-intervention	236.01 ± 9.77	212.10 ± 9.79	23.91 (2.21, 45.62)	.031
Self-reported intake (cups/day of vegetables consumed)^g
Mid-intervention	1.78 ± 0.11	1.84 ± 0.12	−0.06 (−0.33, 0.21)	.662
Post-intervention	1.83 ± 0.11	1.55 ± 0.12	0.28 (0.00, 0.55)	.047

WIC indicates Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.

Data were analyzed with linear mixed-effects models. Covariates included baseline measures of vegetable intake, age, race, breastfeeding status, and exposure to secondhand smoke; supplement use (in the analysis of objectively measured intake), and social desirability trait (in the analysis of self-reported intake).

Sample sizes for longitudinal analyses were 137 (Veggie Meter scores) and 143 (self-reported intake).

Sample sizes for longitudinal analyses were 124 (Veggie Meter scores) and 130 (self-reported intake).

CI indicates confidence interval.

Vegetable intake was objectively measured using a pressure-mediated reflection spectroscopy device (the Veggie Meter®) (Longevity Link Inc., Salt Lake City, UT), to assess dermal carotenoids as a biomarker of intake. Scans were conducted in triplicate and the average of the three scans was recorded. Scores can range from zero to 800, with higher scores indicating higher dermal carotenoid levels.³⁴

Assessed with one of two items in a brief fruit and vegetable screener developed by the National Cancer Institute (“How many cups of vegetables [including 100% vegetable juice] do you eat or drink each day?”).³⁵ To facilitate the estimation of food portions, participants were informed that a cup was about the size of their fist.³⁶