Table 1.

Design strategies and associated principles.

Design Method		Principle
A	Probabilistic risk-based design	Incorporates target reliability indices, system decomposition into subsystems (fault and event trees), and probabilistic models of stress on and capacity of the system in the design.
B	(Deterministic) safety factor-based design	Incorporates multiplication factors on load and resistance variables of the system.
C	Fail-safe design/fail-secure design	In engineering, a fail-safe is a design feature or practice that in the event of a specific type of failure, inherently responds in a way that will cause minimal or no harm to other equipment, to the environment, or to people [82]. Unlike inherent safety to a particular hazard, a system being “fail-safe” does not mean that failure is impossible or improbable, but rather that the system’s design prevents or mitigates unsafe consequences of the system’s failure. That is, if and when a “fail-safe” system fails, it remains at least as safe as it was before the failure.
D	Active safe design	Involves a reaction to a dangerous event by user intervention. For example, in the car industry, active safety measures are already in operation prior to an accident.
E	Passive safe design	Involves a reaction to a dangerous event automatically by natural laws.
F	Vandal-proof design	Design against vandalism.
G	Idiot-proof/fool-proof design	Design against misuse by end-users or to minimize negative consequences of abuse.
H	Fault-tolerant design	System continues processing (possibly at a reduced level) when part of the system fails.
I	Circular design	Design that enables maintaining product integrity (i.e., functionality and value) over a long period of time and eliminates waste.