Table 3. Univariate and multivariate analysis of risk factors of Leishmania infection among patients in Chiang Rai Province, Thailand (n = 392).

Characteristics	Leishmania infection		Univariate analysis			Multivaraite analysis
	Negative n (%)	Positive n (%)	Crude OR	95% CI	P-value	Adjusted OR	95% CI	P-value
Gender
Male	225 (94.94)	12 (5.06)	1.00			1.00
Female	139 (89.68)	16 (10.32)	2.16	0.99–4.70	0.053	2.52	1.01–6.26	0.047
Age (mean (sd))	19.40 (10.96)	30.78 (19.59)	1.05	1.02–1.07	< 0.001	1.05	1.02–1.08	0.003
Nationality
Thai	276 (94.20)	17 (5.80)	2.03	0.92–4.50	0.081
Other	88 (88.89)	11 (11.11)	1.00
Occupation
Students	297 (94.89)	16 (5.11)	3.32	1.50–7.36	0.003
Others	67 (84.81)	12 (15.19)	1.00
Site
Wiang Kaen District	112 (86.15)	18 (13.85)	4.05	1.81–9.05	0.001
Vocational school (Amphoe Mueang Chiang Rai District)	252 (96.18)	10 (3.82)	1.00
Hill tribe
Lisu	180 (87.38)	26 (12.62)	13.29	3.11–56.81	<0.001
Other	184 (98.92)	2 (1.08)	1.00
Pig raising
Yes	38 (86.36)	6 (13.64)	2.34	0.89–6.13	0.084
No	326 (93.68)	22 (6.32)	1.00
Dog raising
Yes	111 (94.87)	6 (5.13)	0.62	0.24–1.57	0.316
No	253 (92.00)	22 (8.00)	1.00
Cat raising
Yes	51 (98.08)	1 (1.92)	0.23	0.03–1.71	0.150
No	313 (92.06)	27 (7.94)	1.00
Chicken raising
Yes	54 (84.38)	10 (15.63)	3.19	1.40–7.28	0.006
No	310 (94.51)	18 (5.49)	1.00
Duck raising
Yes	5 (55.56)	4 (44.44)	11.97	3.02–47.48	<0.001
No	359 (93.73)	24 (6.27)	1.00
Mammal pets
Yes	170 (90.43)	18 (9.57)	2.05	0.92–4.57	0.078
No	194 (95.10)	10 (4.90)	1.00
Dark housing
Yes	113 (88.98)	14 (11.02)	2.22	1.02–4.81	0.043	1.95	0.77–4.93	0.159
No	251 (94.72)	14 (5.28)	1.00			1.00
Untidy house
Yes	134 (93.06)	10 (6.94)	0.95	0.43–2.13	0.907
No	230 (92.74)	18 (7.26)	1.00
Soil flooring
Yes	110 (88.00)	15 (12.00)	2.66	1.23–5.79	0.013	1.56	0.56–4.26	0.388
No	254 (95.13)	13 (4.87)	1.00			1.00
Having termite mound nearby residential house
Yes	75 (88.24)	10 (11.76)	2.14	0.95–4.83	0.067	2.66	0.83–8.56	0.100
No	289 (94.14)	18 (5.86)	1.00			1.00
Having animal enclosures (within 200 meters around the house)
Yes	142 (87.65)	20 (12.35)	3.91	1.68–9.11	0.002	3.04	1.13–8.22	0.028
No	222 (96.52)	8 (3.48)	1.00			1.00
Trees with large bark in housing area
Yes	102 (88.70)	13 (11.30)	2.23	1.02–4.84	0.044
No	262 (94.58)	15 (5.42)	1.00
Unused small huts in housing area
Yes	48 (88.89)	6 (11.11)	1.79	0.69–4.65	0.228
No	316 (93.49)	22 (6.51)	1.00
Timbers and logs in housing area
Yes	100 (89.29)	12 (10.71)	1.98	0.90–4.33	0.087
No	264 (94.29)	16 (5.71)	1.00
Using repellent
Yes	137 (89.54)	16 (10.46)	1.00			1.00
No	227(94.98)	12 (5.02)	1.75	0.72–4.22	0.214	0.41	0.13–1.28	0.125
Wearing long sleeve shirt
Yes	226 (94.17)	14 (5.83)	1.00
No	138 (90.79)	14 (9.21)	1.63	0.76–3.54	0.210
Fog repellent
Yes	246 (95.35)	12 (4.65)	1.00
No	118 (88.06)	16 (11.94)	2.78	1.27–6.06	0.010
Insect repellent spray on cloth
Yes	62 (100.00)	0 (0.00)
No	302 (91.52)	28 (8.48)
Bed net use
Yes	178 (94.18)	11 (5.82)	1.00
No	186 (91.63)	17 (8.37)	1.48	0.67–3.24	0.329
Bed net spray
Yes	69 (100.00)	0 (0.00)
No	295 (91.33)	28 (8.67)
Avoid working at night
Yes	247 (95.00)	13 (5.00)	1.00
No	117 (88.64)	15 (11.36)	2.43	1.12–5.28	0.024
Tidy house
Yes	255 (95.51)	12 (4.49)	1.00			1.00
No	109 (87.20)	16 (12.80)	3.12	1.43–6.81	0.004	1.53	0.38–6.18	0.550
Tidy environment
Yes	255 (95.15)	13 (4.85)	1.00			1.00
No	109 (87.90)	15 (12.10)	2.70	1.24–5.86	0.012	0.85	0.20–3.59	0.829
Avoid termite mounds
Yes	177 (97.79)	4 (2.21)	1.00			1.00
No	187 (88.63)	24 (11.37)	5.68	1.93–16.69	0.107	3.74	1.11–12.58	0.033
Avoid exposure to carrier animals
Yes	222 (97.80)	5 (2.20)	1.00			1.00
No	142 (86.06)	23 (13.94)	7.19	2.67–19.35	<0.001	7.11	2.08–24.37	0.002