Table 1.

Summary of examples of different nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensing platforms, highlighting the electrode, electrode modification, electroanalytical technique used, the analyte of interest, linear range, limit of detection, and sample medium the system was tested within

Electrode	Electrode modification	Method of detection	Analyte	Linear range	Limit of detection	Sample medium	Reference
SPE	Uricase/MWCNT	AMP	Uric acid	5–1000 μM	0.33 μM	Saliva	[18]
GC	Cyt c/TPP-HA[TFSI]/MWCNT	AMP	Hydrogen peroxide	20–892 μM	6.2 μM	Milk and juice drink	[19]
Au	PEI/CNT/Ab	Impedance	CA19–9	–	0.35 U/mL	Blood serum	[20]
GC	GDH/MG-Tb@meso	CV	Glucose	0.025–17 mM	8 μM	Blood serum	[21]
GC	phage/PEI-f-CNT	EIS	Escherichia coli B	103–107 CFU/mL	103 CFU/mL	Culture broth	[22]
Au	AuNPs/SWCNTs/PDA	LSV	DNA	0.1 pM–10 nM	5.2 fM	Human serum	[23]
SPE	AuNP/Ab	EIS	E. coli	15–106 CFU/mL	15 CFU/mL	PBS	[24]
Au	hCG-binding peptide	EIS	hCG	0.001–0.2 IU/mL	0.6 mIU/mL	Human serum	[25]
Ag	Au-PtNWA/PtNP/penicillinase	CV	penicillin	20–310 μM	10.5 μM	Chicken/beef extract	[26]
CCE	AuNP/antigen	LSV	TBEV	50–1600 IU/mL	50 IU/mL	Immunoglobins	[27]
GC	GOx/AgNP-MWCNT	DPV	glucose	0.025–1 mM	0.01 mM	PBS	[28]
GC	PANI/CNT/CuNP	LSV	Phthalate esters	–	0.03–0.08 nM	Bottled drinks, lake water	[29]
PG	Hb/MWCNT/CuNP/PANI	DPV	acrylamide	5–75 nM	0.2 nM	Potato crisps	[30]
GC	XO/MNP-PAMAM-PtNP/rGO-CMC	AMP	Xanthine	50 nM–12 μM	13 nM	Fish samples	[31]
ITO	Au@PtNP/GO nanozymes	AMP	Hydrogen peroxide	1–100 μM	1.62 μM	Artificial urine	[32]
GC	BNNTs-Pani-Pt-GOD	AMP	Glucose	0.01–5.5 mM	6 μM	ND	[33]
GC	BN/chitosan-Catalase	FIA	Forchlorfenuron	0.5–10.0 μM	0.07 μM	Fruits and juice samples	[34]
GC	BN–Pt NPs-GOD	AMP	Glucose	0.1–2.7 mM	14.1 μM	ND	[35]
GC	Au–Pd NPs@BNNSs/Ab2	DPV	B. anthracis	5 pg/mL to 100 ng/mL	1 pg/mL	culture broth	[36]
FTO	Apt/AuNP/BNNS	DPV	Myoglobin	0.1–100 μg/mL	34.6 ng/mL	Human serum	[37]
GC	RGO-GOX	AMP	Glucose	0.1–27 mM	ND	Human serum	[38]
GC	rGO-AuNR-adriamycin	DPV	Complementary DNA	1.0 × 10−16 to 1.0 × 10−9	3.5 × 10−17	Human serum	[39]
GC	NG-Fe3O4-MB	DPV	ssDNA	1.0 × 10−14 to 1.0 × 10−6 M	3.63 × 10−15 M	Human Serum	[40]
GC	3D-rGO-PANI-ssDNA-MB	DPV	breast cancer BRCA1	1.0 × 10−15–1.0 × 10−7 M)	3.01 × 10−16 M	Blood samples	[41]
GC	Nafion- GOx-G/AuNP-GC	AMP	Glucose	Low μM up to 30 mM	1 μM	ND	[42]
Pt	GO-GOX	AMP	Glucose	5–22 mM	ND	ND	[43]
GC	GO-AuNR-MB	DPV	Complementary DNA	1.0 × 10−14–1.0 × 10−9	3.5 × 10−15	ND	[44]
GC	3D GR/AuPtPd	DPV	ctDNA	0.01 to 500 pM	0.13 pM	Human serum	[45]
GC	GO-AuNR-OB	DPV	miR-155	2 fM - 8 pM	0.6 fM	Human plasma	[46]
PG	GQD/ssDNA	DPV	ssDNA or Thrombin	200–500 nM	100 nM	Buffered solution	[47]
Au	CQD/AuNP-GOx	AMP	Glucose	0.05–2.85 mM	17 μM	Human serum	[48]
CC	GOx-GQD	AMP	Glucose	5–1270 μM	1.73 μM	Human plasma	[49]
GC	DNA/chiCD	DPV	NDMA NDEA	9.9–740 nM 9.6–402 nM	9.9 nM 9.6 nM	Buffered solution	[50]
PG	CQD/ctDNA	DPV	DNR	0.1–0.5 μM	66 nM	Aqueous solution	[51]
GC	GOx/Au/MXene/Nafion	AMP	glucose	0.1–18 mM	5.9 μM	PBS	[52]
CFM	CNTs/Ti3C2Tx/PB	AMP	Glucose lactate	10 μM–1.5 mM 0–22 mM	0.33 μM 0.67 μM	Human sweat	[53]
GC	Ti3C2-HF/TBA/GOx/GTA	AMP	glucose	50–27,750 μM	23 μM	Human serum	[54]
GC	MXene-graphene/GOx	CV	glucose	0.2–5.5 mM	0.1 mM	Human serum	[55]
GC	Ab/MXene	CV	CEA	0.0001–2000 ng/mL	0.018 pg/mL	Human serum	[56]

PEI polyethyleneimine, Ab antibody, CNT carbon nanotube, PDA polydopamine, SWCNT single-walled carbon nanotubes, GDH glucose dehydrogenase, MG methylene green, Cyt c cytochrome c, TPP-HA[TFSI] highly water-insoluble phosphonium-based carboxyl functionalised ionic liquid, MWCNT multi-walled carbon nanotube, SPE screen-printed electrode, FTO fluorine-doped tin oxide electrode, XO xanthine oxidase, MNP magnetic nanoparticles, PAMAM polyamidoamine G-4 dendrimers, CMC carboxymethylcellulose, CCE carbon composite electrode, PANI polyaniline, PG pencil graphite, Hb haemoglobin, Apt aptamer, AuNP gold nanoparticles, BNNS boron nitride nanosheets, GC glassy carbon, GOD glucose oxidase, BNNTs boron nitride nanotubes, AMP amperometric, BN boron nitride, Pt platinum nanoparticles, FIA flow injection analysis, Ab₂ anti-B. anthracis Sap antibodies, G graphene, AuNR gold nanorods, OB anthraquinone Oracet Blue, 3D GR 3D graphene, ctDNA circulating tumour DNA, PG pyrolytic graphite, GQD graphene quantum dots, CC carbon ceramin, NDMA N-nitrosodimethylamine, NDEA N-nitrosodiethanolamine, DNR daunorubicin, TBA tetrabutylammonium, GTA glutaraldehyde, CEA carcinoembryonic antigen