Table 2.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Study characteristics | Studies (N=27), n (%) | |||
| Year of publication | ||||
|
|
2014-2015 | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
2016-2017 | 9 (33) | ||
|
|
2018-2019 | 14 (52) | ||
| Country classification by income-level | ||||
|
|
Low-income country | 0 (0) | ||
|
|
Middle-income country | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
High-income country | 25 (93) | ||
| Country of study | ||||
|
|
US | 10 (37) | ||
|
|
Canada | 3 (11) | ||
|
|
UK | 3 (11) | ||
|
|
Australia | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Germany | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
France | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Ireland | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Spain | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Netherlands | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
China | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Taiwan | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Zambia | 1 (4) | ||
| Reported study design | ||||
|
|
Quantitative | 21 (78) | ||
|
|
Qualitative | 5 (19) | ||
|
|
Mixed methods | 1 (4) | ||
| Evaluation methods | ||||
|
|
Skills tests | 18 (67) | ||
|
|
Questionnaires | 16 (59) | ||
|
|
Recordings | 6 (22) | ||
|
|
Knowledge tests | 5 (19) | ||
|
|
Surveys | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
Observation | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
Self-assessment | 3 (11) | ||
|
|
Others | 5 (19) | ||
| Number of evaluation methods used | ||||
|
|
One method | 16 (59) | ||
|
|
Two methods | 9 (33) | ||
|
|
Three methods | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
More than three methods | 0 (0) | ||
| Data analysis conducted in publication | ||||
|
|
Inferential statistics | 15 (56) | ||
|
|
Descriptive statistics | 10 (37) | ||
|
|
Qualitative analysis | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
No analysis identified | 1 (4) | ||
| Self-concluded effectiveness | ||||
|
|
Effective | 17 (63) | ||
|
|
Partly effective | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
Useful only as additional tool | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
No proven effectiveness | 2 (7) | ||
| Study populationa | ||||
|
|
Students | 10 (37) | ||
|
|
Residents | 8 (30) | ||
|
|
Physicians/nurses | 3 (11) | ||
|
|
Mixed training levels | 6 (22) | ||
| Medical discipline | ||||
|
|
Surgery | 13 (48) | ||
|
|
Anatomy | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
Gynecology | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Emergency medicine | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Ophthalmology | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Urology | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Pathology | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Geriatrics | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Dentistry | 1 (4) | ||
| Mode of XRb used | ||||
|
|
VRc | 17 (63) | ||
|
|
ARd | 7 (26) | ||
|
|
MRe | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Combined information | 1 (4) | ||
| Type of head-mounted displayf (model and type of XR) | ||||
|
|
Oculus Rift (Consumer V1/DK2; VR) | 8 (30) | ||
|
|
HTC Vive (2016; VR) | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
Samsung Gear VR (not specified; VR) | 4 (15) | ||
|
|
MS HoloLens (Development Ed; MR) | 3 (11) | ||
|
|
Eyesi Indirect System Simulator (Version 1.1.3; AR) | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Google Glass (Trial Version; AR) | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
No information on brand | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
Brother AirScouter (WD-200B) | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Daydream View Headset (Not specified; VR) | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Epson Moverio (BT-200; AR) | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
Sony HMZ (T1 3D Viewer; VR) | 1 (4) | ||
| Type of learning and medical discipline | ||||
|
|
Practical skills | 18 (67) | ||
|
|
|
Surgery | 11 (41) | |
|
|
|
Emergency medicine | 2 (7) | |
|
|
|
Ophthalmology | 2 (7) | |
|
|
|
Dentistry | 1 (4) | |
|
|
|
Urology | 1 (4) | |
|
|
|
Gynecology | 1 (4) | |
|
|
Theoretical knowledge | 7 (26) | ||
|
|
|
Anatomy | 4 (15) | |
|
|
|
Surgery | 1 (4) | |
|
|
|
Pathology | 1 (4) | |
|
|
|
Gynecology | 1 (4) | |
|
|
Attitudes | 2 (7) | ||
|
|
|
Geriatrics | 1 (4) | |
|
|
|
Surgery | 1 (4) | |
| Duration of Intervention | ||||
|
|
<1 month | 21 (78) | ||
|
|
1 month to 6 months | 3 (11) | ||
|
|
7-12 months | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
1 year to 2 years | 1 (4) | ||
|
|
>2 years | 1 (4) | ||
aResidents were medical doctors in specialized training after completing medical school, under supervision of an experienced doctor. Physicians or nurses were professionals with several years of accredited experience in their field. Mixed training levels indicate that participants of two or more distinct educational levels were part of the study, such as residents and students combined.
bXR: extended reality.
cVR: virtual reality.
dAR: augmented reality.
eMR: mixed reality.
fMultiple types of head-mounted displays may have been used within a study.