Table 4.

The effects of carnosine in animal models of metabolic syndrome or type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Study Design	Daily Intake of Carnosine	Main Findings of Carnosine Effects
Rats (n = 40) received conventional diet (control), high-fat high-carbohydrate diet, carnosine and conventional diet, or carnosine and high-fat high-carbohydrate diet [175]	250 mg/kg/daily intraperitoneal; 16 weeks	-reduced abdominal obesity, blood pressure, glucose; -normalized total cholesterol, LDL level -no effect on insulin, leptin and adiponectin concentrations
BTBR (Black and Tan, BRachyuric) ob/ob mice (n = 35), a type 2 diabetes model with a phenotype like advanced human diabetes nephropathy [176]	45 mg/kg body weight dissolved in drinking water	-improved glucose metabolism, albuminuria and restored the glomerular ultrastructure
Effect of carnosine on renal function, oxidation and glycation products in the kidneys of high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats (n = 24) [179]	250 mg/kg body weight; intraperitoneal, 5 times a week; 4 weeks	-decreased serum lipids, creatinine, and urea levels, oxidation products of lipids and proteins, advanced glycation end products (AGEs) levels