Table 2.
Characteristics and the main results of studies analysing the effect of exercise on dopamine.
| Source | Study Design, Sample Characteristics (n, Sex, Age in Years), Country | Outcome Measures (Dopamine) | Exercise Training Protocol or Interventions | Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wooten & Cardon [45] | Experimental study, 6 participants (3 men, 3 women), aged 18 to 20, USA. | Blood sample measurements of DBH activity. | The cold pressor test involved immersion of the hand in ice water for 3 min. The exercise was a two-step test (21-cm steps) performed at the fastest tolerable rate. | Cold pressor test and exercise resulted in small but significant elevations of plasma DBH activity. No significant change occurred during tilting. |
| Péronet et al. [46] | Experimental study, 7 football players, male, mean age 19 ± 1.0, Canada. | Blood samples were taken during the last min of each condition for measurements of DBH activity. | Supine test for 20 min, 3 min of handgrip exercise, and 10 min in a standing position at end of a supramaximal cycle ergometer test. | DBH activity increased above resting level during supramaximal dynamic exercise. |
| Hartling et al. [47] | Experimental study, 6 males, mean age 25.0 ± 4.0, Denmark. | Catecholamines were collected from the brachial artery and the deep vein. | Dynamic forearm exercise, rate of 50 contractions/min on a spring-loaded hand ergometer. Three min bouts of exercise were performed with 15 min intervals until complete exhaustion. | Adrenaline and noradrenaline increased. Dopamine concentrations did not change. |
| Kinoshita et al. [48] | Experimental study, 12 hypertension patients (4 men, 8 women), mean age 51.7 ± 2.3, Japan. | 24-h urine and fasting blood samples were collected at weeks 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, and 10 of exercise. | Bicycle ergometer exercises, 3 times per week for 10 weeks. | Urine dopamine increased significantly in the 4th week, from 386 ± 9.4 µg/day at week 0 to 524 ± 6.3 µg/day. |
| Nozaki et al. [49] | Retrospective observational study, 12 Parkinson’s disease patients (6 men, 6 women), mean age 64.9 ± 7.8, Japan. | Tomography scans during right-foot movement in DBS-off and DBS-on conditions. | Right-foot sequential extension/flexion movements at participant’s own pace (close to 0.5 Hz). | Lack of dopamine release in the putamen and significant dopamine release in the ventromedial striatum by STN-DBS during exercise. |
| Robertson et al. [50] | Retrospective observational study, 19 methamphetamine-dependent participants (11 men, 8 women), mean age 29.8 ± 5.9, USA. | D2/D3 BPND was determined using (18F) Fallypride. | Exercise training group (EX): 1 h individualized exercise sessions (resistance training) 3 days/week for 8 weeks. Education control group: health education sessions, 1 h, 3 times/week for 8 weeks. | EX showed a significant increase in striatal D2/D3 BPND, no changes in D2/D3 BPND in extrastriatal regions. |
| Sacheli et al. [42] | RCT, 20 participants with mild to moderate (Hoehn & Yahr stages I–III) idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, (13 men, 7 women), mean age 66.7 ± 5.9, Canada. | (11C) raclopride positron emission tomography scans to determine the effect of aerobic exercise on the repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation-evoked release of endogenous dopamine in the dorsal striatum. | Aerobic exercise: 40–60 min of cycling. Control: series of seated and standing stretches and low-impact exercises. Both: 3 times per week for 3 months (36 sessions). | The aerobic group demonstrated increased repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation-evoked dopamine release in the caudate nucleus. |
Abbreviations: D2/D3 BPND, dopamine D2/D3 receptor availability; DAT, dopamine transporter availability; DBH, dopamine-ß- hydroxylase; DBS, deep brain stimulation; RCT, randomized controlled trial; STN, subthalamic nucleus.