. 2021 Jul 24;158:105105. doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.105105

Table 1.

Immunomodulatory effect of IFN β

	Dysregulation in COVID-19	Effect of IFN β administration
APC	↓ pDC impairs antigen presentation and reduces type I IFN production. ↓ mTOR levels in pDC [76]	↑ DC differentiation from CD14⁺ monocytes and CD34⁺ progenitors [77] ↓ naive T cell activation in draining lymph nodes by inhibiting DC migration [72]. ↓ Antigen presentation by downregulating IFN-γ induced MHC II molecule expression among non-professional APC [78].
T cells	↓ CD4⁺ T cell and CD8⁺ T cell leading to pathogen persistence. ↑ T_ex exhibits dysregulated function. ↑ CD4⁺ CCR6⁺ (T_h17) secretes IL-17 which recruits neutrophils and induces pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and TNF α. ↑ CD4⁺ CXCR3⁺ (T_h1) secretes GM-CSF and IFN-γ. IFN-γ increases MHC I and II antigen presentation, chemokine secretion, macrophage activation, and phagocytosis, on the other hand, GM-CSF activates CD14⁺ CD16⁺ monocytes that secretes high levels of IL-6 [49].	↑ CD4⁺ CD25⁺ Foxp3⁺ (T _reg) population secretes IL-10 and TGF β which inhibits T cell activation and Th₁/T_h2 differentiation. ↑ Bcl₂ expression among the T _reg population. ↑ CD4⁺ CCR4⁺ (T_h2) secretes IL-4 which actively inhibits activated macrophage and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1 and TNF. ↓ IL-17 through T _reg population [79]
B cell	↓ CD3⁻ CD19⁺ B cell impairs pathogen clearance [80].	↑ CD69, CD86, and MHC II on the B cell surface which enhances B cell function. ↑ Bcl₂ expression leading to B cell survival [81]
Cytokines	↑ IL-2, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-1Ra, TNF α, and IFN-γ leading to cytokine storm syndrome. ↓Type I IFN and type III IFN impairs innate immune response [82]	↑ IL-10 and IL-4 actively inhibit immune cell activation and recruitment. ↓ IL-1β maturation by inhibiting inflammasome activation [83]
Others	↑ Neutrophils secrete IL-1β and IL-1Ra. ↓ Monocytes, eosinophil, and basophil [82]	↑ Neutrophils apoptosis and efferocytosis [74]

pDC, plasmacytoid dendritic cell; Th, T helper cells; T reg, T regulatory cells; T ex, exhausted state T cell; IL, interleukins; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; IFN, interferon; mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR);