Figure 2.

Osteogenic differentiation of ESCs cultured on PDA/GO-modified surfaces. (A) Cells were cultured on the PDA/GO substrate (composite of PDA with 1 mg/mL and variable GO concentration with 0.1, 0.5, or 1 mg/mL) for 1, 5, 10, and 14 days, and then, the cell viability was assessed as described in the Materials and Methods. (B) ALP activity, (C) [Ca²⁺]_i, and (D) Alizarin Red S staining were evaluated after 4, 7, 14, or 21 days of osteogenic induction. The values are presented as means ± SD (n = 3). * p < 0.05 vs. the control value at each time point.