Table 4.
Overview of possible PET radiopharmaceuticals and their measured effects for functional imaging. AKT = serine/threonine protein kinase, CTLA-4 = cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, CXCR-4 = chemokine receptor type 4, DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid, EGFR = epidermal growth factor receptor, FAPI = fibroblast-activation-protein inhibitors, GLP 1 = glucagon-like peptide 1, GRPR = gastrin-releasing peptide receptors, HER-2 = human epidermal growth factor receptor, PD-1 = programmed cell death protein, PDL-1 = programmed death-ligand 1, PIK3 = phosphoinositide 3-kinase, PSMA = prostate-specific membrane antigen.
| PET Radiopharmaceuticals | Measured Effect |
|---|---|
| F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose | Aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis, glucose consumption or metabolism |
| C-11 thymidine, F-18 fluorothymidine | DNA synthesis, tumor cell proliferation |
| C-11 methionine | Protein synthesis, tumor cell proliferation |
| C-11 choline, F-18 fluorocholine | Cell-membrane metabolism, tumor-cell proliferation |
| C-11 tyrosine, F-18 fluorotyrosine, F-18 fluoroethyltyrosine | Natural amino acid transport |
| F-18 fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine | Dopamine synthesis, natural amino acid transport |
| F-18 fluoromisonidazole | Tissue hypoxia, identification of hypoxic tumor cells |
| F-18 fluoro-17-β-estradiol | Estrogen-receptor status |
| F-18 annexin V | Apoptotic cell death |
| F-18 fluorouracil | Accumulation of 5-fluorouracil in tumor |
| C-11 acetate | Lipid synthesis |
| F-18 siTATE, Ga-68 DOTA-X, Cu-64 DOTA-X In-111-octreotide, Ga-68 somatostatin receptor antagonists | Somatostatin receptor status |
| Ga-68/In-111 herceptin affibody | HER-2 receptor status |
| Ga-68 NODAGA RGD | Tumor neoangeogenesis |
| F-18 FEBM | EGFR expression |
| Ga-68 exendin 4 | GLP 1 imaging |
| Ga-68 DOTA-mAB-F(ab’)2 cetuximab or HER3mAB105 | Receptor tyrosine kinases; resistance to PI3K and AKT inhibitors |
| F-18 PSMA, Ga-68 PSMA | Prostate-specific membrane antigen |
| Zr-89 nivolumab, F-18 BMS 986192, Cu-64 pembrolizumab, C-64 ipilimumab, etc. | PD-1, PDL-1, CTLA-4 |
| F-18, Ga-68-labeled FAPI | Tumor-associated fibroblast-activated protein |
| Ga-68 bombesin | Bombesin receptor, gastrin-releasing peptide receptors (GRPR) |
| Ga-68 pentixafor | CXCR-4 |