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Schematic representation of main actions mediated by adenosine receptors (ARs) in human immune cells. Abbreviations: TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor α; IL: interleukin; MIP: macrophage inflammatory protein; IFN-γ: interferon γ; TGF-β: tissue growth factor β; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; IDO-1: indoleamine 2:3 dioxygenase; COX-2: cyclooxygenase 2; ROS: reactive oxygen species; NF-κB: nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ↑: increase; ↓: decrease.
