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. 2021 Jul 3;10(7):1538. doi: 10.3390/foods10071538

Table 1.

Carotenoid content, bioaccessibility, and structure of selected plant foods as affected by non-thermal processing.

Food Matrix Processing Conditions Structure Carotenoid Content Bioaccessibility Increase Bioaccessibility Decrease References
Carrot Pulsed electric fields (PEF) (0.9 and 191 kJ/kg) in water
PEF (0.9 and 191 kJ/kg) in 300 ppm CaCl2
PEF + Blanching (B) (100 °C for 5 min)
PEF (191 kJ/kg in water or in 300 ppm CaCl2): Decrease hardness
PEF (191 kJ/kg in CaCl2 + B): Increase hardness
No changes in β-carotene content No changes No changes [29]
Carrot PEF (five pulses of 3.5 kV/cm) ↓ Firmness
Degradation of cell walls
Changes in carotenoid location
No changes in carotenoid content Total carotenoids, α-carotene, β-carotene No decreases [30]
Tomato puree (5% olive oil) PEF
(0.02–2.31 kJ/kg) applied to whole tomato
↓ Firmness (0.06–2.31 kJ/kg) ↑ Total (0.06–2.31 kJ/kg)
↑ β-carotene (0.06–0.38 kJ/kg;
1.38–2.31 kJ/kg)
↑ Lycopene (0.14–2.31 kJ/kg)
↑ Lutein (0.14, 0.5–2.31 kJ/kg)
↑ Phytofluene, phytoene, δ-carotene
↑ ɣ-carotene (0.09, 0.14, 2.31 kJ/kg)
Total (0.38 kJ/kg), β-carotene (0.38 kJ/kg), lycopene (0.09–0.38 kJ/kg; 1.38–2.31 kJ/kg), lutein (0.09–0.38 kJ/kg), ɣ-carotene (0.09–0.38; 0.83–2.31 kJ/kg) Total (0.02 and 0.5 kJ/kg), β-carotene (0.02 and 0.06 kJ/kg), lycopene (0.02 and 0.06 kJ/kg), lutein (0.06 and 0.5 kJ/kg), phytofluene (0.02, 0.06, 0.14, 0.5, 0.83, 1.38 and 2.31 kJ/kg), phytoene, δ-carotene (0.02–0.06 kJ/kg; 0.5–2.31 kJ/kg) [31]
Tomato fractions PEF (7.6 MJ/kg; 40–45 °C)
PEF + Heat (H) (7.6 MJ/kg; 85–90 °C)
Tissue PEF + H: cell detachment No changes No increases all-trans-lycopene (H; PEF + H) [32]
Cell clusters Cell membranes damaged ↓ β-carotene (PEF; H) No changes
Single cells Cell membranes damaged ↓ β-carotene (PEF; H) No changes
Chromoplasts No differences ↓ β-carotene (PEF; H; PEF + H) and all-trans-lycopene (PEF; PEF + H) all-trans-lycopene and β-carotene (PEF; PEF + H)
Tomato PEF (1 kV/cm for 0, 4, 80 or 320 μs)
Storage: 0 h, 24 h or 48 h
Irregular cell wall structure by increasing holding time treatment ↑ Total lycopene (all treatments)
↑ All-trans-lycopene (80 and 320 μs)
↑ Cis-lycopene (all treatments excepting 4 μs at 0 h)
Total lycopene (4 μs at 24 h)
All-trans-lycopene (4 μs at 0 h)
Cis-lycopene (all treatments at 24 h and 320 μs at 0 h)
Total lycopene (80 μs; 320 μs at 24 and 48 h)
All-trans-lycopene (80 and 320 μs at 0 and 24 h and 320 μs at 48 h)
Cis-lycopene (all treatments at 48 h and 4 μs at 0 h)
[33]
Tomato juice PEF (1 kV/cm for 4 μs)
B (90 °C for 2 min)
PEF + B
PEF + B + PEF2 (35 kV/cm for 1500 μs)
PEF + B + Ultrasounds (US) (20 kHz; 20% amplitude; 7 min)
PEF + B + US + PEF2
No information provided about structure ↑ Total lycopene (all treatments)
↑ All-trans-lycopene (PEF, PEF + B + US, PEF + B + PEF2)
↑ Cis-lycopene (PEF, PEF + B + PEF2)
↓ Cis-lycopene (PEF + B + US, PEF + B + US + PEF2)
Cis-lycopene (all treatments)
Trans-lycopene (PEF + B + PEF2, PEF + B + US + PEF2)
Trans-lycopene (B, B + US) [33]
Mandarin juices High pressure homogenization (HPH) (150 MPa reaching 68 °C for 15 s) Cell rupture and ↓ particle size ↓ Total carotenoids and individual (lutein, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, phytofluene, phytoene, cis-violaxanthin isomers, 9-cis- violaxanthin + cis-antheraxanthin isomers, cis-anteraxanthin isomers, luteoxanthin isomers, mutatoxanthin isomers) Total carotenoids and individual (lutein, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, phytofluene, phytoene, cis-violaxanthin isomers, 9-cis-violaxanthin + cis-antheraxanthin isomers, cis- anteraxanthin isomers, luteoxanthin isomers, mutatoxanthin isomers) No decreases [34]
Tomato juice HPH (200, 300, 400, and 500 bar) (2 cycles of 15 min) ↓ particle size by increasing pressure ↑ All-trans-lycopene (200 bar)
↓ All-trans-lycopene (300–500 bar)
↓ 5-cis-lycopene (400 and 500 bar)
↑ 5-cis-lycopene (200 and 300 bar)
↓ 9-cis-lycopene (all treatments)
↑ 13-cis-lycopene (300 and 400 bar)
↓ 13-cis-lycopene (200 and 500 bar)
↑ β-carotene (200 bar)
All-trans-lycopene and isomers (500 bar) All-trans-lycopene and total lycopene (200 bar) [35]
Tomato juice US (25 Hz; 200 W, 400 W, 600 W and 800 W for 20 min) Similar increase in particle size in all treatments ↑ All-trans-lycopene (200 and 400 W)
↓ All-trans-lycopene (600 W)
↓ 5-cis-lycopene (all treatments)
↑ 9-cis-lycopene (200, 400, 800 W)
↑ 13-cis-lycopene, ζ-carotene (all treatments)
All-trans-lycopene and isomers (800 W) All carotenoids (400 W) [35]
Commercial pasteurized tomato pulp (with or without added sunflower oil) US (30 min; 24 kHz; 100 μm; 71 W; 1462 J/cm3) US-treated samples showed broken cells with lycopene distributed in the matrix No changes in lycopene content Lycopene (in US-treated samples with 5% of oil) No decreases in lycopene (in US-treated samples with 0, 2.5 and 10% of oil) [36]
Commercial pasteurized tomato pulp US (15, 30 and 60 min; 100 μm; 105 W/cm2) Loss of cell integrity when increasing time of treatments.
No intact cells after 60 min.
Decrease in pectin esterification degree and increase in viscosity
No changes in lycopene content No increases Lycopene bioaccessibility decreases by increasing processing time [37]
Mango by-products (peel and paste) US (30 min; 30% of amplitude; 9 W/mL) No information available about structural characteristics ↑ β-cryptoxanthin (in peel and paste), lutein and β-carotene (both ↓ in paste and ↑ in peel)
Content was determined in gastric phase
Total carotenoids, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein and β-carotene (in peel and paste) No decreases [38]
Astringent persimmon High pressure processing (HPP) (200 MPa for 6 min) No information provided about structure ↓ Total carotenoids and xanthophyll esters, lycopene, (all-trans)-lutein 3-O-laurate-3′-O-
Myristate, -β-cryptoxanthin myristate, -antheraxanthin myristate-Palmitate, -zeaxanthin myristate, -antheraxanthin 3-O-Palmitate, -lutein 3-O-palmitate, -lutein dimyristate, -antheraxanthin laurate-myristate, -α-carotene, -α-cryptoxanthin, -violaxanthin, -antheraxanthin, -neoxanthin dibutyrate, -violaxanthin palmitate, -violaxanthin laurate, 9-cis neoxanthin dibutyrate and 9-cis-β-carotene
↑ (all-trans)-zeaxanthin, -β-cryptoxanthin, -β-carotene and 9-cis-α-carotene
(All-trans)-anteraxanthin, -lutein, -zeaxantin, -β-cryptoxanthin, (all-trans and 13-cis) -α-, -β-carotene, (all-trans)-violaxanthin laurate, (all-trans)-zeaxanthin palmitate, (all-trans)-β-cryptoxanthin laurate, (all-trans)-lutein 3-O-palmitate, (all-trans)-zeaxanthin myristate, (all-trans)-antheraxanthin myristate-palmitate, (all-trans)-β-cryptoxanthin myristate, (all-trans)-β-cryptoxanthin dipalmitate and lycopene No decreases [39]
Carrot and tomato purees HPH at 20 MPa
Blended carrot/tomato purees
Homogenized carrot/tomato purees During digestion: no addition of oil, addition of olive oil (2%) or oil emulsion (2%)
Different suspensions with particle size were prepared through wet sieving technique.
The cell wall of particles smaller than 125 μm was damaged.
No information provided about carotenoid content before digestion Carrot puree without oil: All-trans-β-carotene (≤125 μm)
Carrot puree with 2% oil: All-trans-β-carotene (≤125 μm)
Carrot puree with 2% oil emulsion: All-trans-β-carotene (≤125 μm)
Tomato puree 2% oil emulsion: all-trans-lycopene (<40 μm HPH)
No decreases [40]
Tomato puree (5% olive oil) High pressure pasteurization (HP-P)
(HPP 450 MPa for 15 min and 20 °C and 600 MPa for 20 min and 45 °C)
High pressure sterilization (HP-S)
(121.1 °C for 1.5 min and 117 °C for 3 min at 600 MPa)
Particle size was the same among treatments ↑ 13-cis-lycopene (HP-S), 9-cis-lycopene (HP-S, 3 min), 5-cis-lycopene (HP-P, HP-S, 3 min)
↓ lycopene, all-trans-lycopene, (HP-S)
No increases Lycopene in HP-S [41]
Mango and papaya juice sweetened with Stevia rebaudiana PEF (32 and 256 kJ/kg)
US (32 and 256 kJ/kg)
No information provided about structure PEF (32 kJ/kg): ↑ Total carotenoids
US (32 and 256 kJ/kg): ↓ Total carotenoids
PEF (32 and 256 kJ/kg) and US (32 kJ/kg): Total carotenoids No decreases [42]
Tomato pulp HPH (84–1327 bar)
HPH (220, 521, 1135 bar) + H (30 min, 90 °C)
↑ Homogenization pressure resulted in the breakdown of the tomato cell aggregate structures and volumetric percentage of the small particles increased
↑ Strength of the fiber network
No changes No increases Decrease in lycopene by increasing pressure up to 479 MPa. After that, it remained constant [43]
Carrot puree without oil and adding 5% olive oil HPH (10, 50 or 100 MPa for 1 cycle)
HPH (100 MPa) + HP-P (20 min at 600 MPa and 45 °C)
↓ Particle size by increasing pressure Carrot puree (HPH): ↑ 13-cis- β-carotene
Carrot puree (5% olive oil) (HPH): No changes
Carrot puree (HPH + HP-P): ↓ All-trans- β-Carotene and total β-Carotene
Carrot puree (5% olive oil) (HPH + HP-P): ↑ 9-cis- β -Carotene and total β-Carotene
Carrot puree and puree with added oil (HPH): β-carotene (50 MPa and 100 MPa)
Carrot puree (HPH + HP-P): No changes compared to untreated, but higher bioaccessibility than just HPH treated purees
No decreases [44]
Tomato pulps (red, orange, and yellow) HPH (single pass at 20, 50 and 100 MPa) Consistency increase by increasing pressure.
↓ particle dimensions
Single cells and broken material (20 MPa)
Cell fragments (50 MPa)
Complete breakage of cells (100 MPa)
Red: Lycopene and lutein decrease by increasing pressure
Orange: ↓ ζ-carotene by increasing pressure
Yellow: ↓ Lutein
No increases All carotenoids decreased in all treatments [13]
Carrot juice HPH (20 MPa, 60 MPa, 100 MPa, 150 MPa and 180 MPa) (fixed 1 pass at 25 °C)
Pass of 1, 2 and 3 (fixed 60 MPa at 25 °C)
Inlet temperature of 25 °C, 50 °C and 70 °C (fixed 60 MPa and 1 pass)
No information provided about structure ↑ Total carotenoids (180 MPa) Total carotenoids after each pressure treatment
Total carotenoids after 3 passes
Total carotenoids at 50 and 70 °C
No decreases [45]
Buriti juice US (0, 0.9, 1.8, 2.7 and 3.6 kJ/cm3) No information provided about structure ↑ β-carotene after all treatments β-carotene after all treatments No decreases [46]
Fruit juice milk-based beverage HPP (400 MPa for 5 min) No information provided about structure ↑ Total carotenoids, neoxanthin, 9-cis-violaxanthin (HPP + whole milk), zeaxanthin, lutein (HPP + whole milk or skimmed milk),
↓ Total carotenoids (HPP + soymilk)
Zeaxanthin (HPP + soymilk), lutein
Total carotenoids (HPP + soymilk)
neoxanthin, 9-cis-violaxanthin (HPP + whole milk or soymilk)
zeaxanthin, lutein (HPP + soymilk)
Total carotenoids (HPP + whole milk)
Zeaxanthin, lutein (HPP + whole milk or skimmed milk)
[47]
Tomato juice and kale-based juice PEF (35 kV/cm for 1000 µs)
HPP (500 MPa for 3 min)
No information provided about structure ↓ β-carotene and lutein (PEF-treated kale-based juice) Lycopene (PEF-treated tomato juice) β-carotene (PEF-treated tomato juice) [48]
Orange juice HPH (150 MPa reaching 68 °C for 15 s) No information provided about structure ↓ Total carotenoids,antheraxanthin, violaxanthin, luteoxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, β-carotene, phytoene Lutein, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, β-carotene, phytoene, phytofluene, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, luteoxanthin, mutatoxanthin No decreases [49]

PEF: Pulsed electric fields; US: Ultrasounds; HPP: High pressure processing; HPH: High pressure homogenization; B: Blanching; H: Heat; HP-P: High pressure pasteurization; HP-S: High pressure sterilization.