Table 1.
Carotenoid content, bioaccessibility, and structure of selected plant foods as affected by non-thermal processing.
| Food Matrix | Processing Conditions | Structure | Carotenoid Content | Bioaccessibility Increase | Bioaccessibility Decrease | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carrot | Pulsed electric fields (PEF) (0.9 and 191 kJ/kg) in water PEF (0.9 and 191 kJ/kg) in 300 ppm CaCl2 PEF + Blanching (B) (100 °C for 5 min) |
PEF (191 kJ/kg in water or in 300 ppm CaCl2): Decrease hardness PEF (191 kJ/kg in CaCl2 + B): Increase hardness |
No changes in β-carotene content | No changes | No changes | [29] | |
| Carrot | PEF (five pulses of 3.5 kV/cm) | ↓ Firmness Degradation of cell walls Changes in carotenoid location |
No changes in carotenoid content | Total carotenoids, α-carotene, β-carotene | No decreases | [30] | |
| Tomato puree (5% olive oil) | PEF (0.02–2.31 kJ/kg) applied to whole tomato |
↓ Firmness (0.06–2.31 kJ/kg) | ↑ Total (0.06–2.31 kJ/kg) ↑ β-carotene (0.06–0.38 kJ/kg; 1.38–2.31 kJ/kg) ↑ Lycopene (0.14–2.31 kJ/kg) ↑ Lutein (0.14, 0.5–2.31 kJ/kg) ↑ Phytofluene, phytoene, δ-carotene ↑ ɣ-carotene (0.09, 0.14, 2.31 kJ/kg) |
Total (0.38 kJ/kg), β-carotene (0.38 kJ/kg), lycopene (0.09–0.38 kJ/kg; 1.38–2.31 kJ/kg), lutein (0.09–0.38 kJ/kg), ɣ-carotene (0.09–0.38; 0.83–2.31 kJ/kg) | Total (0.02 and 0.5 kJ/kg), β-carotene (0.02 and 0.06 kJ/kg), lycopene (0.02 and 0.06 kJ/kg), lutein (0.06 and 0.5 kJ/kg), phytofluene (0.02, 0.06, 0.14, 0.5, 0.83, 1.38 and 2.31 kJ/kg), phytoene, δ-carotene (0.02–0.06 kJ/kg; 0.5–2.31 kJ/kg) | [31] | |
| Tomato fractions | PEF (7.6 MJ/kg; 40–45 °C) PEF + Heat (H) (7.6 MJ/kg; 85–90 °C) |
Tissue | PEF + H: cell detachment | No changes | No increases | all-trans-lycopene (H; PEF + H) | [32] |
| Cell clusters | Cell membranes damaged | ↓ β-carotene (PEF; H) | No changes | ||||
| Single cells | Cell membranes damaged | ↓ β-carotene (PEF; H) | No changes | ||||
| Chromoplasts | No differences | ↓ β-carotene (PEF; H; PEF + H) and all-trans-lycopene (PEF; PEF + H) | all-trans-lycopene and β-carotene (PEF; PEF + H) | ||||
| Tomato | PEF (1 kV/cm for 0, 4, 80 or 320 μs) Storage: 0 h, 24 h or 48 h |
Irregular cell wall structure by increasing holding time treatment | ↑ Total lycopene (all treatments) ↑ All-trans-lycopene (80 and 320 μs) ↑ Cis-lycopene (all treatments excepting 4 μs at 0 h) |
Total lycopene (4 μs at 24 h) All-trans-lycopene (4 μs at 0 h) Cis-lycopene (all treatments at 24 h and 320 μs at 0 h) |
Total lycopene (80 μs; 320 μs at 24 and 48 h) All-trans-lycopene (80 and 320 μs at 0 and 24 h and 320 μs at 48 h) Cis-lycopene (all treatments at 48 h and 4 μs at 0 h) |
[33] | |
| Tomato juice | PEF (1 kV/cm for 4 μs) B (90 °C for 2 min) PEF + B PEF + B + PEF2 (35 kV/cm for 1500 μs) PEF + B + Ultrasounds (US) (20 kHz; 20% amplitude; 7 min) PEF + B + US + PEF2 |
No information provided about structure | ↑ Total lycopene (all treatments) ↑ All-trans-lycopene (PEF, PEF + B + US, PEF + B + PEF2) ↑ Cis-lycopene (PEF, PEF + B + PEF2) ↓ Cis-lycopene (PEF + B + US, PEF + B + US + PEF2) |
Cis-lycopene (all treatments) Trans-lycopene (PEF + B + PEF2, PEF + B + US + PEF2) |
Trans-lycopene (B, B + US) | [33] | |
| Mandarin juices | High pressure homogenization (HPH) (150 MPa reaching 68 °C for 15 s) | Cell rupture and ↓ particle size | ↓ Total carotenoids and individual (lutein, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, phytofluene, phytoene, cis-violaxanthin isomers, 9-cis- violaxanthin + cis-antheraxanthin isomers, cis-anteraxanthin isomers, luteoxanthin isomers, mutatoxanthin isomers) | Total carotenoids and individual (lutein, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, phytofluene, phytoene, cis-violaxanthin isomers, 9-cis-violaxanthin + cis-antheraxanthin isomers, cis- anteraxanthin isomers, luteoxanthin isomers, mutatoxanthin isomers) | No decreases | [34] | |
| Tomato juice | HPH (200, 300, 400, and 500 bar) (2 cycles of 15 min) | ↓ particle size by increasing pressure | ↑ All-trans-lycopene (200 bar) ↓ All-trans-lycopene (300–500 bar) ↓ 5-cis-lycopene (400 and 500 bar) ↑ 5-cis-lycopene (200 and 300 bar) ↓ 9-cis-lycopene (all treatments) ↑ 13-cis-lycopene (300 and 400 bar) ↓ 13-cis-lycopene (200 and 500 bar) ↑ β-carotene (200 bar) |
All-trans-lycopene and isomers (500 bar) | All-trans-lycopene and total lycopene (200 bar) | [35] | |
| Tomato juice | US (25 Hz; 200 W, 400 W, 600 W and 800 W for 20 min) | Similar increase in particle size in all treatments | ↑ All-trans-lycopene (200 and 400 W) ↓ All-trans-lycopene (600 W) ↓ 5-cis-lycopene (all treatments) ↑ 9-cis-lycopene (200, 400, 800 W) ↑ 13-cis-lycopene, ζ-carotene (all treatments) |
All-trans-lycopene and isomers (800 W) | All carotenoids (400 W) | [35] | |
| Commercial pasteurized tomato pulp (with or without added sunflower oil) | US (30 min; 24 kHz; 100 μm; 71 W; 1462 J/cm3) | US-treated samples showed broken cells with lycopene distributed in the matrix | No changes in lycopene content | Lycopene (in US-treated samples with 5% of oil) | No decreases in lycopene (in US-treated samples with 0, 2.5 and 10% of oil) | [36] | |
| Commercial pasteurized tomato pulp | US (15, 30 and 60 min; 100 μm; 105 W/cm2) | Loss of cell integrity when increasing time of treatments. No intact cells after 60 min. Decrease in pectin esterification degree and increase in viscosity |
No changes in lycopene content | No increases | Lycopene bioaccessibility decreases by increasing processing time | [37] | |
| Mango by-products (peel and paste) | US (30 min; 30% of amplitude; 9 W/mL) | No information available about structural characteristics | ↑ β-cryptoxanthin (in peel and paste), lutein and β-carotene (both ↓ in paste and ↑ in peel) Content was determined in gastric phase |
Total carotenoids, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein and β-carotene (in peel and paste) | No decreases | [38] | |
| Astringent persimmon | High pressure processing (HPP) (200 MPa for 6 min) | No information provided about structure | ↓ Total carotenoids and xanthophyll esters, lycopene, (all-trans)-lutein 3-O-laurate-3′-O- Myristate, -β-cryptoxanthin myristate, -antheraxanthin myristate-Palmitate, -zeaxanthin myristate, -antheraxanthin 3-O-Palmitate, -lutein 3-O-palmitate, -lutein dimyristate, -antheraxanthin laurate-myristate, -α-carotene, -α-cryptoxanthin, -violaxanthin, -antheraxanthin, -neoxanthin dibutyrate, -violaxanthin palmitate, -violaxanthin laurate, 9-cis neoxanthin dibutyrate and 9-cis-β-carotene ↑ (all-trans)-zeaxanthin, -β-cryptoxanthin, -β-carotene and 9-cis-α-carotene |
(All-trans)-anteraxanthin, -lutein, -zeaxantin, -β-cryptoxanthin, (all-trans and 13-cis) -α-, -β-carotene, (all-trans)-violaxanthin laurate, (all-trans)-zeaxanthin palmitate, (all-trans)-β-cryptoxanthin laurate, (all-trans)-lutein 3-O-palmitate, (all-trans)-zeaxanthin myristate, (all-trans)-antheraxanthin myristate-palmitate, (all-trans)-β-cryptoxanthin myristate, (all-trans)-β-cryptoxanthin dipalmitate and lycopene | No decreases | [39] | |
| Carrot and tomato purees | HPH at 20 MPa Blended carrot/tomato purees Homogenized carrot/tomato purees During digestion: no addition of oil, addition of olive oil (2%) or oil emulsion (2%) |
Different suspensions with particle size were prepared through wet sieving technique. The cell wall of particles smaller than 125 μm was damaged. |
No information provided about carotenoid content before digestion | Carrot puree without oil: All-trans-β-carotene (≤125 μm) Carrot puree with 2% oil: All-trans-β-carotene (≤125 μm) Carrot puree with 2% oil emulsion: All-trans-β-carotene (≤125 μm) Tomato puree 2% oil emulsion: all-trans-lycopene (<40 μm HPH) |
No decreases | [40] | |
| Tomato puree (5% olive oil) | High pressure pasteurization (HP-P) (HPP 450 MPa for 15 min and 20 °C and 600 MPa for 20 min and 45 °C) High pressure sterilization (HP-S) (121.1 °C for 1.5 min and 117 °C for 3 min at 600 MPa) |
Particle size was the same among treatments | ↑ 13-cis-lycopene (HP-S), 9-cis-lycopene (HP-S, 3 min), 5-cis-lycopene (HP-P, HP-S, 3 min) ↓ lycopene, all-trans-lycopene, (HP-S) |
No increases | Lycopene in HP-S | [41] | |
| Mango and papaya juice sweetened with Stevia rebaudiana | PEF (32 and 256 kJ/kg) US (32 and 256 kJ/kg) |
No information provided about structure | PEF (32 kJ/kg): ↑ Total carotenoids US (32 and 256 kJ/kg): ↓ Total carotenoids |
PEF (32 and 256 kJ/kg) and US (32 kJ/kg): Total carotenoids | No decreases | [42] | |
| Tomato pulp | HPH (84–1327 bar) HPH (220, 521, 1135 bar) + H (30 min, 90 °C) |
↑ Homogenization pressure resulted in the breakdown of the tomato cell aggregate structures and volumetric percentage of the small particles increased ↑ Strength of the fiber network |
No changes | No increases | Decrease in lycopene by increasing pressure up to 479 MPa. After that, it remained constant | [43] | |
| Carrot puree without oil and adding 5% olive oil | HPH (10, 50 or 100 MPa for 1 cycle) HPH (100 MPa) + HP-P (20 min at 600 MPa and 45 °C) |
↓ Particle size by increasing pressure | Carrot puree (HPH): ↑ 13-cis- β-carotene Carrot puree (5% olive oil) (HPH): No changes Carrot puree (HPH + HP-P): ↓ All-trans- β-Carotene and total β-Carotene Carrot puree (5% olive oil) (HPH + HP-P): ↑ 9-cis- β -Carotene and total β-Carotene |
Carrot puree and puree with added oil (HPH): β-carotene (50 MPa and 100 MPa) Carrot puree (HPH + HP-P): No changes compared to untreated, but higher bioaccessibility than just HPH treated purees |
No decreases | [44] | |
| Tomato pulps (red, orange, and yellow) | HPH (single pass at 20, 50 and 100 MPa) | Consistency increase by increasing pressure. ↓ particle dimensions Single cells and broken material (20 MPa) Cell fragments (50 MPa) Complete breakage of cells (100 MPa) |
Red: Lycopene and lutein decrease by increasing pressure Orange: ↓ ζ-carotene by increasing pressure Yellow: ↓ Lutein |
No increases | All carotenoids decreased in all treatments | [13] | |
| Carrot juice | HPH (20 MPa, 60 MPa, 100 MPa, 150 MPa and 180 MPa) (fixed 1 pass at 25 °C) Pass of 1, 2 and 3 (fixed 60 MPa at 25 °C) Inlet temperature of 25 °C, 50 °C and 70 °C (fixed 60 MPa and 1 pass) |
No information provided about structure | ↑ Total carotenoids (180 MPa) | Total carotenoids after each pressure treatment Total carotenoids after 3 passes Total carotenoids at 50 and 70 °C |
No decreases | [45] | |
| Buriti juice | US (0, 0.9, 1.8, 2.7 and 3.6 kJ/cm3) | No information provided about structure | ↑ β-carotene after all treatments | β-carotene after all treatments | No decreases | [46] | |
| Fruit juice milk-based beverage | HPP (400 MPa for 5 min) | No information provided about structure | ↑ Total carotenoids, neoxanthin, 9-cis-violaxanthin (HPP + whole milk), zeaxanthin, lutein (HPP + whole milk or skimmed milk), ↓ Total carotenoids (HPP + soymilk) Zeaxanthin (HPP + soymilk), lutein |
Total carotenoids (HPP + soymilk) neoxanthin, 9-cis-violaxanthin (HPP + whole milk or soymilk) zeaxanthin, lutein (HPP + soymilk) |
Total carotenoids (HPP + whole milk) Zeaxanthin, lutein (HPP + whole milk or skimmed milk) |
[47] | |
| Tomato juice and kale-based juice | PEF (35 kV/cm for 1000 µs) HPP (500 MPa for 3 min) |
No information provided about structure | ↓ β-carotene and lutein (PEF-treated kale-based juice) | Lycopene (PEF-treated tomato juice) | β-carotene (PEF-treated tomato juice) | [48] | |
| Orange juice | HPH (150 MPa reaching 68 °C for 15 s) | No information provided about structure | ↓ Total carotenoids,antheraxanthin, violaxanthin, luteoxanthin, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, β-carotene, phytoene | Lutein, zeaxanthin, zeinoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, β-carotene, phytoene, phytofluene, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin, luteoxanthin, mutatoxanthin | No decreases | [49] | |
PEF: Pulsed electric fields; US: Ultrasounds; HPP: High pressure processing; HPH: High pressure homogenization; B: Blanching; H: Heat; HP-P: High pressure pasteurization; HP-S: High pressure sterilization.