Table 1.
Natural derived polysaccharides hydrogels and their combination with proteins in CTE.
| Hydrogels | Cell Type | Scaffold Formation | Main Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alginate [32,54] | various | Alginate-based bioinks | biocompatibility, degradability, process flexibility and excellent printability |
| Fibrin [62] | hBM-MSC | Blended hydrogel | promoted cell proliferation |
| Gelatin and Nhap [31] | Mouse chondrocytes | 3D printed hydrogel | high cell viability, supported cellular adhesion and growth |
| Gelatin and fibrinogen [49] | Human bone MCS | 3D bioprinting | chondrogenic differentiation, ECM synthesis, chondrogenic phenotype |
| Fibrin and HA [50] | Rabbit chondrocytes | 3D bioprinting bioinks | proper environment for cartilage formation |
| Collagen [64] | Rats’ chondrocytes | 3D bioprinting bioinks | cell adhesion, proliferation and expression of cartilage specific genes |
| Nanocellulose [65] | Articular cartilage (calves) | Printable bioink | promoted cell spreading, proliferation, and collagen II synthesis by the encapsulated cells |
| Agarose [28,69] | various | Agarose-based hydrogels | biocompatibility, water solubility, adaptable mechanical properties, printability |
| Silk Fibroin [70] | Cartilaginous tissue | Blended hydrogels | immunocompatibility, deposition of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) and collagen, upregulation of cartilage genes |
| Fibrin [51] | HECDC | Nanostructured hydrogels | biodegradable and biologically active constructs |
| Chitosan [71,72], | Chondrocyte, IFP-ASCs | 3D-printed hydrogels | biocompatibility, cellular morphology, mechanical properties, chondrogenesis |
| CM Chitosan [73] | Rabbit chondrocytes | 3D bioprinting bioinks | cell attachment, favorable mechanical property, chondrogenic gene expression |
| Chitosan-HA [74] | ADSC | Biomimetic Matrices | supports stem cell differentiation towards cartilage matrix producing chondrocytes |
| Cellulose | |||
| NFC-Alginate [66] | human chondrocytes | 3D bioprinting | potential use of nanocellulose for 3D bioprinting of living tissues and organs |
| NFC-Alginate and HA [75] | iPSCs | 3D bioprinting | NFC/A bioink is suitable for bioprinting iPSCs to support cartilage production |
| Methylcellulose (MC) | |||
| Alginate-MC [76] | bovine chondrocytes | Bioink for bioprinting | 3D-printing-based fabrication, bioengineered tissue for cartilage regeneration |
| Hyaluronic acid [77,78], | various | Hydrogels | stimulates the chondrogenic differentiation, produce essential cartilage ECM |
| Alginate-HA [78] | hAC | HA-based bioink (hydrogel) | cell functionality, expression of chondrogenic gene markers, specific matrix deposition |
| Agarose-HA [79] | rabbit chondrocytes | Hydrogels | improved viability, proliferation, morphology and adhesion of the chondrocytes |
| Chitosan-HA [80] | rabbit chondrocytes | Hydrogels | in vivo study (rabbits); implant had a mixture of hyaline and fibro cartilage |
| Chitosan-HA [74] | ADSC | Biomimetic Matrices | supports stem cell differentiation towards cartilage matrix producing chondrocytes |
| Gelatin-HA [52] | hBMSCs | Hybrid hydrogel | in vivo study (rabbit femoral condyle) promising scaffold for repair and resurfacing |
| Collagen-HA [53] | rabbit | Hybrid scaffolds | in vivo study (cartilage defects of rabbit ear) |
hBM-MCS/hBMSCs—human bone marrow stem cells, NFC—nanofibrillated cellulose, HECDC—encapsulating human elastic cartilage-derived chondrocytes, ADSC—adipose-derived stem cells, CM—carboxymethyl, IPFP-ASCs—infrapatellar fat pad adipose stem cells, iPSCs—human-derived induced pluripotent stem cells, hAC—human articular cartilage.