Table 4.
Experimental and clinical studies on the effects of inanimate probiotics in diabetes mellitus and health.
| Type of Research | Microorganism | Inactivation Method | Model System | Main Findings | Study |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animal |
Lactobacillus casei CCFM419, L. plantarum X1, L. rhamnosus Y37, L. brevis CCFM648, and L. plantarum CCFM36 |
Heat treatment (80 °C for 30 min) | C57BL/6J mice induced T2D with STZ (100 mg/kg BW) | Inanimate probiotic: ↑ Serum IL-6 levels and faecal acetic levels Live probiotic: Improved insulin tolerance, normalised serum IL-10, TNF-α and IL-6 levels, ↑faecal acetic and butyrate levels, ↑faecal Lactobacillus, Akkermansia, and Bifidobacterium genera, ↑faecal actinobacteria (%) Both: ↓ FBG, normalisation of HbA1c and leptin levels, ↑ileum L cell levels, ↑faecal Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio Both with stronger effect with live probiotics: Improved glucose tolerance, protection of pancreatic histological characteristics |
Li et al., 2016 [25] |
| Bifidobacterium longum BR-108; low, medium, and high doses | Heat and pressure treatment (autoclaved at 105 °C for 20 min) |
Tsumura Suzuki obese diabetes (TSOD) mice (genetically obese mice) | All the doses: ↓BG gain (vs. control mice), ↓adipose tissue accumulation, no differences in food consumption, ↓serum creatinine levels Medium and high doses: ↓FBG, ↓NEFAs, ↓creatinine urine levels Medium dose: ↓TC High doses: Improved glucose tolerance (OGTT), ↓TG |
Ben Othman et al., 2019 [121] | |
|
Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bb-12, incorporated in wheat pasta |
Irradiation (gamma-irradiation on ice, at 2.5 Kilogray) | Healthy Wistar rats | Control and paraprobiotic pasta: ↓FBG and TC (vs. control diet), no differences in food consumption and BW, TG, HDL, AST, ALT, and microbiota alpha-diversity indexes Paraprobiotic pasta: Differential microbiota composition (vs. control diet and control pasta) |
Almada et al., 2021 [120] | |
| Akkermansia muciniphila | Pasteurised (70 °C for 30 min) | C57BL/6J mice (normal chow or high-fat diet) | ↓ IR index, ↑ faecal caloric content, ↑ goblet cell density, normalisation of adipocyte diameter and ↓leptin levels (vs. live microorganism) | Plovier et al., 2017 [122] | |
| Human | Lacticaseibacillus casei 01; in whey-grape juice drink | Ohmic heating (8 V/cm, 95 °C/7 min, 60 Hz) | In vitro experiments; healthy volunteers (n = 15) | Preliminary in vitro experiments: Live and inanimate probiotic had α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory activities Postprandial glucose levels in healthy volunteers: Accelerated increase in PBG with the probiotic and inanimate probiotic drinks (vs. control) due to differences in sugar content with the control (water), no differences in AUC values, inanimate probiotic had a similar effect to control. |
Barros et al., 2021 [85] |
| Akkermansia muciniphila | Pasteurised | Volunteers with excess body weight (overweight or obese), insulin resistance and a metabolic syndrome | ↓ insulin levels, improved insulin sensitivity index, fasting glycaemia and HbA1c were not modified (vs. placebo group) | Depommier et al., 2019 [123] |
ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; AUC: area under the curve; BW: body weight; FBG: fasting blood glucose; HbA1c: glycated haemoglobin; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; IR: insulin resistance index; NEFAs: non-esterified fatty acid; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; PBG: postprandial blood glucose; STZ: streptozotocin; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglyceride; T1D: type 1 diabetes; T2D: type 2 diabetes.