Table 1.

Production of cCNCs from different feedstock materials.

Feedstock	Method	Length (nm)	Width (nm)	CrI (%)	Yield (%)	Carboxyl Content (mmol/g)	Ref.
Cotton linters	HCl, TEMPO	n.r.	4–5	75	81	0.15 (DO)	[22]
Sugar beet pulp	HCl, TEMPO	n.r.	3–4	52	63	0.23 (DO)	[22]
Softwood-bleached kraft pulp	TEMPO, cavitation	155–244	3.6	81	94	1.57	[24]
MCC	TEMPO, cavitation	163–192	4.3	88	70	1.12	[24]
Flax fibers	APS	144 ± 5	3.8 ± 0.1	75	28	0.18 (DO)	[20]
Flax shives	APS	296 ± 16	5.1 ± 0.1	64	22	0.19 (DO)	[20]
Hemp fibers	APS	148 ± 3	5.8 ± 0.1	73	36	0.17 (DO)	[20]
Triticale straw extract	APS	134 ± 5	4.2 ± 0.1	73	31	0.11 (DO)	[20]
MCC	APS	128 ± 4	5.5 ± 0.1	83	65	0.19 (DO)	[20]
Whatman CF1	APS	121 ± 3	6.7 ± 0.3	91	81	0.12 (DO)	[20]
Wood pulp	APS	124 ± 6	6.0 ± 0.2	81	36	0.19 (DO)	[20]
Bacterial cellulose	APS	88 ± 5	6.5 ± 0.2	70	14	0.14 (DO)	[20]
Black spruce dissolving pulp	H2O2	170	10	n.r.	n.r.	0.15	[21,65]
Dissolving pulp	NaOCl, transition metal catalyzed	100–150	9–14	80	n.r.	0.15	[49]
Lemon seed	APS	140–160	10–20	74	13	n.r.	[41]
Lemon seed	TEMPO	340–380	26–42	66	52	n.r.	[41]
Juncus plant	Citric acid/HCl	352 ± 79	6.1 ± 2.8	83	n.r.	n.r.	[58]
Tomato plant residues	Citric acid/HCl	514 ± 131	4.7 ± 1.4	78	n.r.	n.r.	[59]
Bamboo borer powder	APS	20–50 (spheres)	-	63	n.r.	n.r.	[42]
Recycled paper	APS	130 ± 15	4.7 ± 2.5	72	22	0.57	[40]
Tunicate	APS	383 ± 164	10.9 ± 2.3	86	n.r.	0.07 (DO)	[44]
Cotton powder	APS, microwave	80–400	7	n.r.	46	n.r.	[39]
Softwood pulp	TEMPO	103 ± 29	21 ± 7	n.r.	12	0.7	[66]
Softwood pulp	Cu2SO4/H2O2	247 ± 58	6 ± 2	n.r.	51	0.9	[66]
Cotton pulp	APS/TMEDA	80–350	3–12	91	63	1.38	[37]
Cotton pulp	H2SO4, KMnO4/oxalic acid	150–300	10–22	89	68	1.58	[51]
MCC	H2SO4, HNO3	186 ± 13	9 ± 3	91	24	0.11	[52]
Sugarcane bagasse	Citric acid, ultrasonication	251 ± 52	21 ± 6	77	32	0.60	[55]
MCC	Citric acid, HCl	231.8 ± 23.2	15.8 ± 3.0	83	88	1.40	[56]
Bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp	Citric acid, FeCl3	100–250	6–12	80	80	0.90	[60]
Bleached eucalyptus kraft pulp	Oxalic acid	278	19	81	25	0.19	[53]
Softwood pulp	Sodium periodate, sodium chlorite	120–200	13	91	n.r.	6.6	[61]
Bleached kraft pulp	H2SO4, sodium chlorite, 4% hypochlorite	150–200	5–20	n.r	50	n.r	[67]
Elephant grass	TEMPO, ultrasonication	174 ± 73	5.2 ± 1.4	n.r	n.r	n.r.	[32,33]
Bleached kraft pulp	LiBr/H2SO4, APS	57 ± 24	9.3 ± 3.1	96	52	0.44	[45]
Recycled medium-density fiberboard	APS	170–365	13–17	63	55	0.10 (DO)	[46]
Denim waste	NaOH, APS	81.5 ± 20.5	18.4 ± 2.5	27	79	n.r.	[47]
Balsa fibers	APS	95.5	6.5	n.r.	57.7	n.r.	[48]
Kapok fibers	APS	112.1	5.8	n.r.	60.7	n.r.	[48]

n.r. = not reported; DO: degree of oxidation.