Table 1.

Associations between childhood atmospheric lead exposure and adult personality traits across model specifications

Sample	Test	Preregistered	Ext.	Agr.	Con.	Neu.	Ope.	Full results in SI Appendix Table
United States	Preregistered covariates	Yes	0.022*	−0.030*	−0.079*	0.002	0.009*	S6
	Additional covariates requested in revision		0.003	−0.009*	−0.016*	0.009*	−0.001	S17–S21
	Not controlling for SES	Yes	0.021*	−0.030*	−0.079*	0.002	0.007*	S7
	Among participants with higher exposure	Yes	0.010*	−0.004	−0.016*	−0.007	0.016*	S8
	Among participants with lower exposure	Yes	0.045*	−0.190*	−0.300*	0.074*	0.031*	S9
	Excluding college students	Yes	0.025*	−0.022*	−0.077*	−0.003	0.001	S10
	Alternate missing data imputation method	Yes	0.004*	−0.004*	−0.011*	−0.00003	0.002*	S11
	Lead–age interaction, age <20†		0.050	0.024	0.021	0.003	0.050	S22
	Lead–age interaction, age 20 to 29		−0.007	−0.091*	−0.063*	0.061*	−0.007	S22
	Lead–age interaction, age 30 to 39†		0.008	−0.041	−0.054	0.018	0.008	S22
	Lead–age interaction, age 40 to 49†		0.016	−0.001	−0.018	−0.013	0.016	S22
	Lead–age interaction, age 50+†		0.010	−0.002	0.003	−0.004	0.010	S22
	Lead–region interaction, Northeast		0.030*	−0.040*	−0.106*	0.006	0.036*	S23
	Lead–region interaction, West†		0.026	−0.025	−0.065	0.000	0.002	S23
	Lead–region interaction, Southwest†		0.035	−0.059	−0.137	0.020	−0.012	S23
	Lead–region interaction, Midwest†		0.017	−0.047	−0.122	0.006	0.025	S23
	Lead–region interaction, Southeast†		0.030	−0.029	−0.094	0.012	−0.003	S23
Europe	Preregistered covariates	Yes	0.005	−0.049*	0.014*	0.025*	0.079	S6
	Not controlling for SES	Yes	−0.011*	−0.061*	−0.003	0.054*	0.077*	S32
	Only participants nearby lead measurement	Yes	0.001	−0.038*	0.012*	0.022*	0.072*	S33
	Excluding college students	Yes	0.008*	−0.050*	0.017*	0.024*	0.079*	S34

Ext. = Extraversion. Agr. = Agreeableness. Con. = Conscientiousness. Neu. = Neuroticism. Ope. = Openness. * = P < 0.001. Each row summarizes standardized multiple regression coefficients of interest from one set of models. Bold text indicates that the effect was as hypothesized. Italic text indicates that the effect was not as hypothesized. The column for Extraversion is not marked because we did not make any hypotheses about this trait.

^†For interaction parameters, effects are calculated by the difference from the reference group (20 to 30 y olds and northeastern US residents) rather than the difference from 0, preventing use of significance asterisks. For these models, we marked results according to directionality and effect size, with B ≥ 0.01 considered the threshold for a meaningfully large effect.