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. 2021 Jul 4;13(7):2302. doi: 10.3390/nu13072302

Table 3.

Maternal dietary intervention studies and offspring bone outcomes.

Study Details Outcome
Country, Year
[Reference]		 Study Subjects Study Design Assessment Method (Age) Parameters Nutrients Intervention (Duration, Dose)
Dietary Intake Assessment of Analyzed Nutrients (If Available)		 No Effect/Association (↔)
Positive (↑)
Negative (↓)
UK, 2016
[11]		 F = 456
M = 509
(neonates)		 Randomized, placebo-controlled trial (MAVIDOS) DXA
(7 d *—placebo; 8 d *—vitamin D)		 WB BMD Vitamin D

  • 14 wk of gestation until delivery

  • 1000 IU/d or placebo

 WB BMD (↔)
Iran, 2016
[12]		 F = 53
M = 74
(neonates)		 Randomized placebo clinical trial DXA
(21.7 d *—vitamin D, 24.5 d *—control)		 BMD Vitamin D

  • 26–28 wk of gestation until delivery

  • 2000 IU/d or placebo

  • Calcium intake (mg/d)—vitamin D vs. control: 1172.58 (467.70), 1190.00 (383.77), respectively (p = 0.81)

  • Vitamin D intake (IU/d)—vitamin D vs. control: 2345.16 (240.68), 430.79 (230.80), respectively (p < 0.001)

 BMD (↔)
Denmark,2020
[13]		 F = 256
M = 261
(3 y and 6 y)		 Randomized clinical trial (COPSAC2010) DXA
(3 y and 6 y)		 Total, head, TBLH BMD Vitamin D

  • 24 wk of gestation until 1 wk after birth

  • 2800 IU/d or 400 IU/d

 2800 IU/d vs. 400 IU/d
At the age 3 y:
Total, head and TBLH BMD (↔)
At the age 6 y:
Head, total BMD (↑), TBLH BMD (↔)
3 y and 6 y combined:
Head BMD (↑), TBLH BMD, total BMD (↔)
Gambia,2017
[14]		 F = 231, 9.2 y *
M = 216, 9.3 y *		 Randomized controlled trial pQCT vBMD Calcium

  • 20 wk of gestation until delivery

  • 1500 mg Ca (Ca carbonate) or placebo

  • Calcium intake (mg/d)—Ca group vs. placebo: 1831 (177), 356 (159), respectively

 vBMD (↔)
India, 2017
[15]		 Group 1,2—14 m **
Group 3—16 m **		 Randomized, placebo-controlled trial DXA
(12–16 m)		 WB BMD Vitamin D + Calcium

  • 14–20 wk of gestation until delivery

  • 60 000 IU cholecalciferol

  • group 1: 4 weekly (+Ca 1g/d)

  • group 2: 8 weekly (+Ca 1g/d)

  • group 3: placebo (only Ca 1g/d + 400 IU cholecalciferol)

 Group 3 vs. 1 and 2:
WB BMD (↑)
Brazil, 2015
[16]		 N = 56 adolescent mother-infant pairs 5 wk Randomized controlled trial DXA
(5 wk)		 TB BMD Vitamin D + Calcium

  • 26 wk of gestation until delivery

  • cholecalciferol (200 IU/d) + calcium (600 mg/d) or placebo

  • Calcium intake (mg/d)—Ca + vitamin D group vs. placebo: 500 (276), 743 (457), respectively (p = 0.02)

 TB BMD (↔)
Denmark, 2018
[34]		 F = 337
M = 351
6.2 y *		 Randomized clinical trial (COPSAC2010) DXA
(6.2 y *)		 TBLH BMD n-3 LC PUFAs

  • 24 wk of gestation until 1 wk after birth

  • n-3 LC PUFAs: fish oil (2.4 g; 55% EPA and 37% DHA)

  • control: olive oil

  • (72% n-9 oleic acid and 12% n-6 linoleic acid)

 TBLH BMD (↔)

BMD, bone mineral density; vBMD, volumetric bone mineral density; COPSAC2010, Copenhagen Prospective Studies on Asthma in Childhood; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; DXA, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; LC PUFAs, long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids; MAVIDOS, Maternal Vitamin D Osteoporosis Study; TB, total body; TBLH, total body less head; WB, whole body; F, female; M, male; * mean; ** median; d, days; m, months; wk, week; y, years; data about dietary intake presented as mean values (standard deviation).