Figure 2.

Signaling pathways and effects by which exogenous ketogenic supplements-generated ketosis (βHB) may extend lifespan, delay both aging and development of neurodegenerative diseases, and improve learning and memory dysfunctions. Abbreviations: AMPK, AMP activated serine-threonine protein kinase; βHB, beta-hydroxybutyrate; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; FOXO, Forkhead box O; HATs, histone acetyltransferases; HCAR2, hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2; HDAC, histone deacetylase; IL-1R, IL-1 receptor; mTOR, mechanistic target of rapamycin; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; NLRP3, NOD-like receptor pyrin domain 3; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; PGC1-α, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) coactivator-1α; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SIRT, sirtuin; UCP, uncoupling protein.