Table 2.
Oncolytic viruses engineering and payloads in clinical practice.
| Payload and Modifications | n | Function |
|---|---|---|
| GM-CSF (CSF2) | 49 | GM-CSF is a growth factor that stimulates differentiation, proliferation and migration of myeloid cells. |
| Thymidine kinase (TK) | 24 | HSV-1 TK is a virulence factor deletion of which attenuates virus, but not essential for virus replication. In addition, TK being used as a suicide gene to specifically target tumor cells. |
| Human sodium iodide symporter (hNIS) | 14 | NIS mediates a transport process of iodide uptake. Overexpression of NIS in cancer cells increases iodide concentration within the cells that benefit from radioiodine therapy. |
| p53 (TP53) | 10 | Tumor protein is a major tumor suppressor factor that acts through the regulation of the cell cycle. p53 is often malfunction in tumor cells. |
| Interferon β (IFN-beta) | 8 | IFN-beta is a cytokine, which has an antiviral and anti-proliferative effect. IFN-beta stimulates innate and adaptive immunity and has confirmed antitumor activity. |
| MAGE-A3 | 3 | Tumor-specific antigen. MAGE-A3 immunization elicits antigen-specific immune response. |
| PSA-TRICOM (B7.1, ICAM-1, LFA-3) | 2 | Prostate-specific antigen (PSA). B7.1, ICAM-1, LFA-3 are T-cell costimulatory molecules. |
| Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) | 2 | CEA is a glycoprotein, which rarely found in the blood of adults. Expression of CEA serves as a marker for noninvasive monitoring of virus dissemination in vivo. |
| Interleukine-12 (IL-12) | 1 | IL-12 plays a central role in T-cell and natural killer cell responses, induces the production of interferon-γ (IFN-γ). |
| Fas-c and PPE-1 promoter | 1 | Chimeric death receptor Fas and TNF receptor 1 and modified endothelium-specific pre-proendothelin-1 (PPE-1) promoter delivered by virus vector may trigger apoptosis of endothelial cells and reduce tumor angiogenesis. |
| HPV E6/HPV E7 | 1 | Human papillomavirus oncoproteins. |
| TERT promoter | 1 | Telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter (TERT) is used to attenuate virus replication. |
| Interferon-gamma (IFN-ɣ) | 1 | IFN-ɣ is a cytokine molecule with pronounced cytostatic, pro-apoptotic and immune-stimulating effects. |
| Tyrosinase-related protein (TYRP1) | 1 | TYRP1 is expressed in melanomas and on the surface of melanocytes and is an immunoreactive protein. |
| Anti-CTLA4 | 1 | blocks CTLA-4 receptor and upregulate cytotoxic T –lymphocytes |
| None | 109 | Many wild-type viruses have an oncolytic potential and are frequently used without payload. Attenuated or evolutionary selected viruses also demonstrate strong antitumor effect. |