Table 3.

Immune reactions induced by plant virus-derived protein nanoparticle (VNP) vaccines.

Scaffold Platform	Viral Disease	In Vitro/In Vivo	Elicited Immune Response	Specific Immune Reactions	References
CPMV	HIV-1	In vivo	Humoral	Neutralizing antibodies	McInerney et al. (1999) [295] Durrani et al. (1998) [296]
4	HIV-1	In vivo	Cellular	Antigen-specific T-cell proliferation	McInerney et al. (1999) [295]
PVX	HIV-1	In vivo	Humoral	Neutralizing antibodies	Marusic et al. (2001) [297]
	Influenza A {H1N1)	In vivo	Cellular	Antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell activation	Lico et al. (2009) [298]
	HCV	In vitro, In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs	Uhde-Holzem et al. (2010) [299]
TMV	Influenza (H1N1)	In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs, protection against challenge	Mallajosyula et al. (2014) [93]
CMV	HCV	In vitro, In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs	Piazzolla et al. (2005) [53] Nuzzaci et al. (2007) [54]
	HCV	In vitro, In vivo	Cellular	Cytokine release (IFN-γ, IL-12, and IL-15)	Piazzolla et al. (2005) [53] Nuzzaci et al. (2007) [54]
	Zika virus	In vitro, In vivo	Humoral	Neutralizing antibodies	Cabral-Miranda et al. (2017) [300]
AlMV	RSV	In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs	Yusibov et al. (2005) [301]
	RSV	In vivo	Cellular	CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses	Yusibov et al. (2005) [301]
TBSV	HIV-1	In vitro, In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs	Joelson et al. (1997) [302]
PapMV	Influenza	In vitro, In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs, B-cell expansion, protection against challenge	Denis et al. (2008) [109] Hanafi et al. (2010) [303] Bolduc et al. (2018) [108] Carignan et al. (2015) [106] Therien et al. (2017) [107]
	Influenza	In vitro, In vivo	Cellular	Antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell expansion and response	Babinet al. (2013), [110] Leclercet al. (2007) [112] Hanafi et al. (2010) [303] Laliberte-Gagne et al. (2019) [111]
	HCV	In vivo	Humoral	Antigen-specific Abs	Denis et al. (2007) [48]

(Adapted from Butkovich et al., 2021 [304]).