Fig. 1.

a Influence of gut microbiota on bone. The gut microbiota (GM) contributes to preserve gut barrier integrity. The GM affects absorption of calcium and vitamin D, maturation of the immune system, and production and activation of hormones as estrogens and androgens. Moreover, GM dysbiosis can result in production of inflammatory cytokines that translocate intestinal barrier and exert detrimental effects on bone. Probiotics and prebiotics have shown potential to mitigate or restore bone health. b Influence of gut microbiota on joints and muscles. The GM can influence joint health through some mechanisms including host immunity, and inflammation. Whereas influence of muscle health involves also glucose intake, energy metabolism, and fiber protein synthesis