Table 1.

Fullerene-based nanomaterial toxicity in aquatic invertebrates.

Fullerene	Model organism	Dosage and time	Toxic effect	LC50	Reference
C60	Chironomus riparius	10 g wet artificial sediment and 40 ml C60, food source 0.5 and 0.8% Urtica sp. 10 days	Morphological changes and inhibiting larval growth. Agglomeration in gut and damage of microvilli.	NA	[33]
C60	Chironomus riparius	Artificial sediment 0.0004-80 mg/kg dry weight 10 days and 42 days	C60 resulted in a bell-shaped dose-response relationship in view of the relative growth patterns.	NA	[34]
C60	Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam.	1, 5, and 10 ppm 30 minutes to 4 hours	Concentration-dependent lysozyme release, extracellular oxyradical, and nitric oxide production.	NA	[35]
C60	Mytilus galloprovincialis Lam.	0.01, 0.1, and 1 ppm 72 h	C60 accumulated in the digestive gland-induced dephosphorylation of mTOR.	NA	[36, 37]
C60 and fluoranthene alone and combination	Mytilus sp.	0.10–1 ppm 32–100 ppb 3 days	C60 and fluoranthene evoke toxic responses and genetic damage. The combined exposure produced enhanced damage with additive rather than synergistic effects.	NA	[36, 51]
C60, C70, and C60-PCBM	Lumbriculus variegatus	0, 10, 25, 100, 150 ppm 28 days	C60 can affect the population growth of L. variegatus but C60-PCBM and C70 effects are lower in comparison.	NA	[38, 39]
C60	Lumbriculus variegatus	10 and 50 ppm 28 days	Impairment of feeding activity and C60 aggregate presence in feces.	NA	[39, 40]
C60	Daphnia magna, Hyalella azteca, copepods	30 ppm 5 days 7 ppm 48-96 h 0, 3.75, 7.5, 15, and 22.5 ppm 96 h	C60 21-day Daphnia exposure resulted in a significant delay in molting and reduced offspring production at 2.5 and 5 ppm.	NA	[40, 41]
C60	Daphnia magna and Moina macrocopa	4 hr/d sunlight C60 filtered 0.2 μm (0, 0.462, 0.925, 1.85, 3.70, and 7.40 ppm) and 0.45 μm (0, 0.703, 1.40, 2.81, 5.62, and 11.2 ppm) 24, 48, 72, and 96 h	Fullerene leads to oxidative damage to D. magna and it was aggravated by natural sunlight.	0.2 μm—96 h LC50—5.95 ppm 0.45 μm—96 h LC50; >11.2 ppm (outdoor) 0.2 μm—96 h LC50 1.35 ppm 0.45 μm—96 h LC50 1.58 ppm (outdoor)	[41, 42]
C60	Artemia salina	Filtered C60 40, 180, 260, 350, 440, 510, 700, and 880 ppb Sonicated C60 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 ppm for 1, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, and 96 h	Exposure to sonicated nanoparticles shows varied mortalities in different stages of A. salina, whereas filtered solutions showed increased mortality with the increase in concentration.	Sonicated C60, the adult LC50 value was 3.17 ppm, whereas it was 617 ppb for the filtered solution.	[42, 43]
C60	Laeonereis acuta	0.01, 0.10, or 1.00 ppm 24 h	L.acuta anterior region presented lower antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation after exposure to 1.0 mg C60/l.	NA	[43, 44]
C60	Daphnia magna	Filtered C60 40, 180, 260, 350, 440, 510, 700, and 880 ppb Sonicated C60 0.2, 0.45, 0.9, 2.25, 4.5, 5.4, 7.2, and 9 ppm 48 h	C60 caused an increase in mortality with an increase in concentration and higher levels of toxicity at lower concentrations.	Filtered C60 460 ppb Sonicated C60 7.9 ppm	[44, 45]
C60	Daphnia magna	1, 5, 10, 20, and 40 ppm 72 h	C60 exposure restricted-energy acquisition and induced oxidative damage, which might be the mechanisms underlying the observed acute toxicity of C60 to daphnia.	16.3 ± 0.8 ppm	[45, 46]
C60	Daphnia magna	Accumulation 0, 0.2, 2, 7, 15, 30, and 50 ppm 24 h Depuration 48 h	D. magna may play a role as a carrier of fullerenes from one trophic level to another.	NA	[46, 47]
C60	Daphnia magna	Short term 22 ppm and long term 1 ppm 10 and 21 days	C60 protected cellular components in organisms exposed to UV and fluoranthene photo-toxicity in short-term exposure, whereas long-term exposure (21 days) of low-level C60 caused significant cellular damage in Daphnia magna alimentary canal.	NA	[49, 50]
C60	Perinereis gualpensis	200 g 14 days	The data indicated an absence of toxic responses mediated by oxidative stress in estuarine worms exposed to C60 mixed in sediments.	NA	[50, 51]

NA: not available.