Table 2.
Fullerene-based nanomaterial toxicity in aquatic vertebrates.
| Fullerene | Model organisms | Dosage and time | Toxic effect | LC50 | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| C60, C70, C60(OH)24 | Danio rerio (embryo) | 100 and 500 ppb for C60 and C70 and 500 to 5000 ppb for C60(OH)24 | Exposure to C60 induced both necrotic and apoptotic cell deaths in the embryo, while C60(OH)24 induced an increase in embryonic cellular death. Results obtained suggest C60(OH)24 is significantly less toxic than C60. | C60/C70—200 ppb C60(OH)24—4000 ppb |
[52] |
| C60 | Danio rerio (embryo) | 100, 200, and 400 ppb 2, 6, 12 h | Concentrations of C60 decreased to levels not associated with mortality, <50 μg/l, 100% mortality results when the embryos were exposed to concentrations from 250 to 130 ppb. | 130 ppb | [53] |
| nC60, fullerol | Danio rerio (embryos) | nC60—1.5 ppm C60(OH)16–18—50 ppm 96 hpf |
nC60 at 1.5 ppm delayed the zebrafish embryo and larval development, decreased the survival and hatching rates, and caused pericardial edema, whereas fullerol hydroxylated C60 derivative at 50 ppm did not exert to the zebrafish embryos. | NA | [54] |
| Water-soluble fullerenes (1-12) | Danio rerio (embryos) | 1, 10, 100, and 250 μM for 24 hours | Positively charged water-soluble fullerenes tend to exhibit greater toxicity than negatively charged fullerenes with similar structures; toxicity varies considerably among negatively charged fullerenes from very low to moderate, depending on structural features. | Cationic fullerenes—120 μM Anionic fullerenes—500 μM |
[63, 64] |
| C60 | Danio rerio (adult) | 1 and 2 ppm for 1 day | C60 exposure to adult zebrafish at low concentration induces multiple behavioral abnormalities. | NA | [56] |
| C70 | Danio rerio (adult) | 0.5 and 1.5 ppm for 2 weeks | Toxicity and the alterations were observed in several neurobehavior parameters after zebrafish exposure to environmentally relevant amounts of C70. | NA | [57] |
| nC60 | Micropterus salmoides (juveniles) | 0.5 ppm and 1 ppm for 48 h | Increase in lipid peroxidation in the brains at 0.5 ppm and marginal depletion of glutathione (GSH) in the gills. | NA | [58] |
| C60 | Anabas testudineus | 5 and 10 ppm for 60 days | Stress induced by fullerene C60 exposure provoked reproductive toxicity in the fish, Anabas testudineus. | 96 h LC50—50 ppm | [59, 64] |
| C60 | Anabas testudineus | 5 and 10 ppm for 96 h and 60 days | Sublethal concentrations of fullerene C60 have a toxic impact on fish A. testudineus by affecting normal physiology. | 96 h LC50—50 ppm | [59, 60] |
| C60 | Pseudetroplus maculatus | 0.1 ppm for 96 h | Decrease in SOD, CAT, GSH reductase, AChE. Increase in hydrogen peroxide and lipid peroxidation. | NA | [60, 61] |
| C60 | Fundulus heteroclitus | 0, 1, 2.5, and 10 ppm for 96 h | Water-stirred suspensions of nC60 are not toxic to embryonic, larval, or adult stages of F. heteroclitus at concentrations up to 10 ppm. | NA | [61, 62] |
| C60 | Cyprinus carpio | 0.1, 1, and 10 ppm for 48 h | The results indicated that C60 affects bacterial communities that live in mucus secretions of common carp. | NA | [62, 63] |
NA: not available.