Table 2.
Studies that considered magnesium dietary intake
| First author, year | Study design | Setting | Inclusion criteria | Exclusion criteria | Number of subjects (M-F) mean age | Lowest quintile intake/RDA or EAR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wright et al. (2019) | Prospective Cohort study | North-West University, Potchefstroom campus | Postmenopausal urban black South African women from PURE-SA-NWP, that underwent measurements of distal radius BMD, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and had their blood profiles done in both 2010 and 2012 | – | 144 F | −/265 mg/d (EAR) |
| Onchard et al. (2014) | Prospective Cohort study | 40 clinical centers throughout theUnited States | Postmenopausal women enrolled in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study | Missing data on magnesium or other model covariates | 73,684 F | < 206.5 mg/d |
| Abrams et al. (2014) | Prospective study | GeneralClinical Research Center (GCRC) of Texas Children’s Hospital inHouston, TX, USA | Healthy subjects with 4.0 to 8.9 years of age at the time of starting the study not using any medications or multivitamins/multiminerals | Body mass index (BMI) Z‐score > 2.0 | 50 (28 F + 22 M) | −/110 mg/d (EAR) |
| Matias et al. (2012) | Prospective study | Faculty of Human Kinetics, Technical University ofLisbon | Elite swimmers, males and females, with minimum period of activity of approximately six years; > 10 h training per week; negative test outcomes for performance enhancing drugs; not taking any medications or dietary supplements | – | 17 (9 F + 8 M) | −/400 mg/d (RDA) |
| Esterle et al. (2009) | Prospective study | Junior high schools and at theUniversity of Caen | Healthy adolescent girls and young women (12 to 22 years old) | – | 192 F | −/360 mg/d (RDA) |
| Gunn et al. (2014) | Cross sectional study | Community dwelling from the Auckland, Hawke’s Bay and Manawatu regions in New Zealand | Healthy, postmenopausal women aged 50–70 years | Any known significant health condition or regular use of medication which could affect bone or inflammation including HRT, NSAID’s and proton pump inhibitors | 142 F | −/320 mg/d (RDA) |
| Kim et al. (2011) | Prospective study | Department of Food and Nutrition, Kangwon National University, Gangwon-do | Healthy females aged 19–25 years | Taken any medications or nutritional supplements | 484 F | −/280 mg/d (EAR) |
| Farrell et al. (2009) | Cross-sectional study | University of Arizona, Department of Nutritional Sciences | Cohorts (Fall 1995–Fall 1997) of postmenopausal women from the first year of the Bone Estrogen Strength Training (BEST), a blocked- randomized, clinical trial, with: 12-month measurements of BMD at the 5 sites of interest (lumbar spine L2–L4 (1.130.16 g/cm3), femur trochanter (0.75 ± 0.11 g/cm3), femur neck (0.88 ± 1.12 g/cm3), Ward’s triangle (0.76 ± 1.14 g/cm3), and total body (1.11 ± 0.08 g/cm3) | – | 244 F | −/320 mg/d (RDA) |
| Veronese et al. (2017) | Prospective study | Four clinical sites in the US (Baltimore, MD; Pittsburgh, PA; Pawtucket, RI; and Columbus, OH) | Subjects enrolled in the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI) database, at high risk of knee OA | – | 3765 (1577 M – 2071 F) | < 205 mg/d M—< 190 mg/d F |
| Welch et al. (2017) | Cross-sectional Cohort study | United Kingdom (UK) Biobank cohort | People aged 37–73 years | Subject without dietary or other relevant missing data, non-white ethnicity, pregnant women, those with a grip strength of zero, those with extremes of FFM, BMD, Mg, energy, protein, EI:EER, or BMI | 156,575 (36,118 M – 40,441 F in bone analysis) | 238 ± 37 mg/d M—217 ± 34 mg/d F |
| Hayhoe et al. (2015) | Case Cohort Longitudinal Study | Norfolk District (UK) | Men and women aged 40–82 y living in the general community | – | 2328 ultrasound cohort group – 4713 fracture case-cohort group | 218 ± 31 mg/d M—189 ± 26 mg/d F for ultrasound cohort group and 209 ± 31 mg/d M—175 ± 25 mg/d F for fracture case-cohort group |
| Mahdavi et al. (2015) | Observational study | Rheumatology clinic in Tabriz, Islamic Republic of Iran, | Women > 50 years old who had been no menstruation for ≥ 6 months prior to entry into the study, having no history of hormone replacement therapy, other bone disease, kidney stones, endocrine disorders or any medical conditions that could influence on the mineral status | Use of mineral supplements, having history of hormone replacement therapy, bone disease, kidney stones, endocrine disorders or any medical conditions that could influence on the mineral status | 51 F(23 had osteoporosis and 28 had osteopenia) | 325 mg/d |
| First author, year | % subject in lowest quintile intake/% subject < RDA or EAR | Highest Quintile intake | % subject in highest quintile intake | Primary outcomes | Results |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wright et al. (2019) | −/21,1% | – | – | Investigate the association between nutrient intake and dietary patterns (exposures) with changes in bone turnover and BMD (bone health outcomes) in postmenopausal urban black South African women | Dietary magnesium negatively correlated with CTx-1 in 2012 (r = -0.21, p = 0.02). The baseline CTx-1 and dietary magnesium intake predicted 22% of the variance in percentage change of CTx-1 over two years (p < 0.001). The magnesium intake predicted short-term bone resorption over two years |
| Onchard et al. (2014) | 19.7% | ≥ 422.5 mg/d | 20.2% | Magnesium intake as a risk factor for osteoporotic fractures and altered bone mineral density (BMD) | Baseline hip BMD was 3% higher (P < 0.001), and whole body BMD was 2% higher (P < 0.001), in women who consumed > 422.5 compared with < 206.5 mg mg/d of magnesium |
| Abrams et al. (2014) | – | – | – | Mg intake or absorption and is related with bone mineral content (BMC) or bone mineral density (BMD) in children | Mg intake and total Mg absorption were significantly associated with both total body BMC and BMD |
| Matias et al. (2012) | – | – | – | Mg intake mediates the association between BMD and LST in elite male and female swimmers | Mg intake was a significant, independent predictor of BMD, with a significant increase of 24% in the R2 of the initial predictive model |
| Esterle et al. (2009) | Magnesium intakes were lower than the recommended dietary allowances in all the participants | – | – | Identify dietary foods and nutriments associated with lumbar bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD) in adolescent girls | After menarche, BMC, BMD, serum IGF-1, and serum PTH were tightly associated with phosphorus, magnesium, protein, and energy from milk (p < 0.01) |
| Gunn et al. (2014) | – | – | – | Investigate diet and nutrition-related factors associated with bone loss in a group of postmenopausal (PM) women | Positive correlation with Mg intake and BMD and Procollagen type I N propeptide (p < 0.05) |
| Kim et al. (2011) | 79,96% | – | – | Assess Mg intake in early adult stage women and examine its relationship on bone quality | The level of Mg intake per 1,000 kcal showed significant correlation to the speed of sound in the calcaneus (r = 0.110, p < 0.05) after adjustment for age, BMI, and percent body fat |
| Farrell et al. (2009) | – | – | – | Diet records (DR) and Food Frequency Questionnaires (FFQ), assessing the same year of dietary intake, provide equivalent estimates of nutrient intakes when determining the associations of dietary nutrient intakes with BMD in healthy, post-menopausal women | Iron and magnesium were significantly associated with all BMD sites regardless of the dietary assessment method used |
| Veronese et al. (2017) | 20% M – 19,9% F | > 398 mg/d M—> 373 mg/d F | 20% M – 19,8% F | The effect of higher Mg intakes on the onset of fractures in a large cohort of American men and women involved in the Osteoarthritis Initiative | Men (HR = 0.47; 95%CI: 0.21–1.00, p = 0.05) and women (HR = 0.38; 95%CI: 0.17–0.82, p = 0.01) in the highest quintile reported a significant lower risk of fracture. Women meeting the recommended Mg intake were at an 27% decreased risk of future fractures |
| Welch et al. (2017) | 20,6% M—19,9% F | 532 ± 87 mg/d M –476 ± 75 mg/d F | 20,5% M—19,9% F | Associations between dietary Mg intake and musculoskeletal health (skeletal muscle mass, hand grip strength and heel bone density) in middle and younger older aged men and women | Significant inter-quintile differences across intakes of magnesium existed in men and women, respectively, 2.9% and 0.9% for BMD |
| Hayhoe et al. (2015) | – | 466 ± 73 mg/d M—383 ± 58 mg/d F for ultrasound cohort group and 460 ± 75 mg/d M—373 ± 59 mg/d F for fracture case-cohort group | – |
The influence of dietary magnesium and potassium intakes, as well as circulating magnesium, on bone density status and fracture risk in an adult population |
Statistically significant positive trends in calcaneal BUA for women but not men were apparent across increasing quintiles of magnesium plus potassium (Mg + K) z score intake (P = 0.03). Reduced hip fracture risk in both men and women was evident for individuals in specific Mg + K z score intake quintiles compared with the lowest |
| Mahdavi et al. (2015) | – | – | – | Investigate and compare the copper, magnesium, zinc and calcium status and intake between osteopenic and osteoporotic postmenopausal women in Tabriz, Islamic Republic of Iran | The mean dietary intake of magnesium, zinc and calcium in post-menopausal women with low bone density were significantly lower than recommended dietary allowance |