Table 2.

Developmental neurotoxins targeting mitochondria.

Chemical	Exposure, species	Toxicities on mitochondria in the developing brain	Other findings in pups	References
As	Pregnant rats were injected IP with 2–4 mg/kg As once daily from GD6 to PND21	Complex II and III activities were decreased in FC, HC, and CS on PND22 and 45. Complex I and IV activities were decreased in FC, HC, and CS on PND22	ROS and MMP were increased and decreased, respectively, in FC, HC, and CS on PND22 and 45	[46]
Mn	Pups were injected IP with MnCl2 (5–20 mg/kg) once daily from PND8 to PND12	Complex I and II activities were increased and decreased, respectively, in the striatum of the pups on PND14	ROS and caspase activity were increased in the striatum of the pups on PND14. Abnormalities in motor coordination were observed at 3-5 weeks of age	[58]
Sevoflurane	Rats at PND7 were anesthetized with 3% sevoflurane in 40% oxygen for 4 h	The protein expression of Drp1 and Mfn2 was increased and decreased, respectively, in HC shortly after exposure	Cleaved caspase-3, cytochrome c, and apoptosis were increased in HC shortly after exposure. Abnormalities in spatial learning and memory were observed at PND30	[65]
General anesthesia (midazolam, isoflurane, and nitrous oxide)	Rats at PND7 were injected IP with midazolam (9 mg/kg) and then exposed for 6 h to nitrous oxide (75%), isoflurane (0.75%), and oxygen (approximately 24%)	Expression and oligomerization of Drp1 protein in mitochondria were increased in subicular and thalamic regions shortly after exposure	ROS and fission of mitochondria in the subicular region were increased shortly after exposure	[69]

GD: gestational day; PND: postnatal day; FC: frontal cortex; HC: hippocampus; CS: corpus striatum; MMP: mitochondrial membrane potential; IP: intraperitoneal.