Table 2.
Summary of previous studies on the application of biosensors.
| Type of biomarker | Recognition element | Output Signal | Sample Matrix | Limit of detection (LOD) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bacterial (MRSA) DNA | Aptamer | Optical/magnetic | Clinical sample | 10 fg/μL | [18] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | Clinical sample | – | [20,31] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | Wastewater | 14.6, 2, and 2.18 copies/20 μL for SARS-CoV-2 N1, N2, and N3 | [22] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | Wastewater | 58 copies/100 mL | [23] |
| DNA (ARGs) | Aptamer | Optical | Wastewater | – | [24,25] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | Clinical sample | 80 copies/mL | [27] |
| DNA (mtDNA) | Aptamer | Optical | Wastewater | 40 copies/20 μL | [28] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | Wastewater | – | [29,30] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Electrical | Clinical sample | – | [32] |
| Bacteria (P. aeruginosa) | Aptamer | Optical | Cell medium extracts | 1 CFU/mL | [35] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | Clinical sample | 10 copies/10 μL | [36] |
| Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria | Antibody, protein | Optical/magnetic | DI water | 101 CFU/mL | [37] |
| Bacteria | Nanomaterial (Au nanorods) | Optical | DI water | – | [38] |
| Virus (adenovirus, rhinovirus, and HIV) | Nanomaterial (Ag nanorod arrays) | Optical | DI water | 100 PFU/mL | [39] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | DI water | 5.5 × 104 TCID50/mL | [40] |
| Viral protein (SARS-CoV-2) | Aptamer | Optical | DI water | 250 nM | [43] |
| Virus (H1N1) | Aptamer | Optical | DI water | 97 PFU/mL | [44] |
| Protein biomarker | Antibody | Optical | Blood plasma | 0.86 ng/mL | [45] |
| Virus (H1N1, adenovirus) | Antibody | Optical/magnetic | PBS, blood, serum, and sputum | 50 PFU/mL (H1N1), 10 PFU/mL (adenovirus) |
[46] |
| Virus (H5N2, HPIV 3) | Aligned carbon nanotube | Optical | Clinical sample | 102 EID50/mL (50% egg infective dose per microliter) | [47] |
| Human prostate cells | Wheat germ agglutinin | Optical | Cell medium | – | [49] |
| Virus (Hep B) | Antibody | Optical | Human blood plasma | 0.01 IU/mL | [50] |
| Virus (SARS-CoV-2) | Antibody | FET | Culture medium and clinical samples | 1.6 × 101 PFU/mL in culture medium, 2.42 × 102 copies/ml in clinical samples | [54] |
| Viral RNA (SARS-CoV-2) | DNA probe | Electrochemical | Clinical sample | 6.9 copies/μL | [56] |
| Viral RNA (Hep C) | Peptide | SEC | 10 mM PBS | 264.5 IU/mL | [59] |
| Viral protein (H5N1) | Primary and secondary antibodies | SEC | Clinical samples | 4 ng/mL, or 77 pM | [60] |