Table 3. Cross-tabulation of independent variables across stigma category using Chi-square test.
*Fisher’s exact test employed.
| Variables | Stigma due to COVID-19 | p-value | |||
| No n(%) | Yes n(%) | Total n(%) | |||
| Age (in years) | Less than 30 | 50(42.74) | 67(57.26) | 117(100.00) | 0.821 |
| 30 and above | 39(44.32) | 49(55.68) | 88(100.00) | ||
| Gender | Female | 43(42.16) | 59(57.84) | 102(100.00) | 0.718 |
| Male | 46(44.66) | 57(55.34) | 103(100.00) | ||
| Type of institute | Government | 35(36.84) | 60(63.16) | 95(100.00) | 0.078 |
| Private | 54(49.09) | 56(50.91) | 110(100.00) | ||
| Province | Bagmati Province | 58(42.34) | 79(57.66) | 137(100.00) | 0.076* |
| Gandaki Province | 3(42.86) | 4(57.14) | 7(100.00) | ||
| Karnali Province | 1(25.00) | 3(75.00) | 4(100.00) | ||
| Lumbini Province | 3(23.08) | 10(76.92) | 13(100.00) | ||
| Province no. 2 (Janakpur as territorial capital) | 4(36.36) | 7(63.64) | 11(100.00) | ||
| Province no.1 (Biratnagar as territorial capital) | 12(80.00) | 3(20.00) | 15(100.00) | ||
| Sudurpaschim Province | 8(44.44) | 10(55.56) | 18(100.00) | ||
| Education | Bachelor | 48(45.71) | 57(54.29) | 105(100.00) | 0.832* |
| Intermediate | 9(39.13) | 14(60.87) | 23(100.00) | ||
| Masters or above | 31(42.47) | 42(57.53) | 73(100.00) | ||
| Secondary school level | 1(25.00) | 3(75.00) | 4(100.00) | ||
| Marital status | Married | 38(40.43) | 56(59.57) | 94(100.00) | 0.427 |
| Single | 51(45.95) | 60(54.05) | 111(100.00) | ||
| Chronic diseases | No | 85(44.27) | 107(55.73) | 192(100.00) | 0.399* |
| Yes | 4(30.77) | 9(69.23) | 13(100.00) | ||
| History of psychiatric illness | No | 87(44.62) | 108(55.38) | 195(100.00) | 0.192* |
| Yes | 2(20.00) | 8(80.00) | 10(100.00) | ||
| Psychiatric support in pandemic | No | 82(44.81) | 101(55.19) | 183(100.00) | 0.245 |
| Yes | 7(31.82) | 15(68.18) | 22(100.00) | ||
| Chronic diseases in family members | No | 38(41.76) | 53(58.24) | 91(100.00) | 0.669 |
| Yes | 51(44.74) | 63(55.26) | 114(100.00) | ||
| Living with the elderly (>60 yrs) | No | 49(51.04) | 47(48.96) | 96(100.00) | 0.039 |
| Yes | 40(36.70) | 69(63.30) | 109(100.00) | ||
| Medication for psychiatric illness | No | 82(43.39) | 107(56.61) | 189(100.00) | 0.978 |
| Yes | 7(43.75) | 9(56.25) | 16(100.00) | ||
| Frontline worker | No | 34(77.27) | 10(22.73) | 44(100.00) | 0.000 |
| Yes | 55(34.16) | 106(65.84) | 161(100.00) | ||
| Work experience | Less than five years | 56(45.16) | 68(54.84) | 124(100.00) | 0.532 |
| More than five years | 33(40.74) | 48(59.26) | 81(100.00) | ||
| Precautionary measures | Insufficient | 52(37.96) | 85(62.04) | 137(100.00) | 0.025 |
| Sufficient | 37(54.41) | 31(45.59) | 68(100.00) | ||
| COVID-19 diagnosed | No | 78(50.00) | 78(50.00) | 156(100.00) | 0.001 |
| Yes | 11(22.45) | 38(77.55) | 49(100.00) | ||
| Admitted to the hospital due to COVID-19 | No | 88(44.67) | 109(55.33) | 197(100.00) | 0.141* |
| Yes | 1(12.50) | 7(87.50) | 8(100.00) | ||
| Loss of a significant one due to COVID-19 | No | 80(43.96) | 102(56.04) | 182(100.00) | 0.660 |
| Yes | 9(39.13) | 14(60.87) | 23(100.00) | ||
| GAD-7 interpretation | No anxiety | 54 (50.00) | 54 (50.00) | 108(100.00) | 0.000* |
| Mild anxiety | 30 (37.97) | 49 (62.03) | 79(100.00) | ||
| Moderate anxiety | 5 (31.25) | 11 (68.75) | 16(100.00) | ||
| Severe anxiety | 0 (0.00) | 2 (100.00) | 2(100.00) | ||
| PHQ-9 interpretation | No depression | 61(51.26) | 58(48.74) | 119(100.00) | 0.042* |
| Mild depression | 23(35.38) | 42(64.62) | 65(100.00) | ||
| Moderate depression | 5(29.41) | 12(70.59) | 17(100.00) | ||
| Moderately severe depression | 0(0.00) | 3(100.00) | 3(100.00) | ||
| Severe depression | 0(0.00) | 1(100.00) | 1(100.00) | ||
| Anxiety | No | 54(50.00) | 54(50.00) | 108(100.00) | 0.045 |
| Yes | 35(36.08) | 62(63.92) | 97(100.00) | ||
| Depression | No | 61(51.26) | 58(48.74) | 119(100.00) | 0.008 |
| Yes | 28(32.56) | 58(67.44) | 86(100.00) | ||
| Healthcare worker | Other than doctors | 42(48.28) | 45(51.72) | 87(100.00) | 0.228 |
| Doctor | 47(39.83) | 71(60.17) | 118(100.00) | ||