. 2021 Feb 2;12(4):1177–1195. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmaa178

TABLE 1.

Summary of studies included in the systematic review and meta-analysis of WG intake and subjective appetite AUC and/or energy intake in adults¹

Study	Population	Health status	Study design	WG exposure²	RG control exposure	Outcomes measured	Length of appetite testing	Effect of WG
Wolever et al. (28)	n = 40	Healthy	Crossover	40 g WG oats	Cream of rice in skim milk	Hunger	180 min	NS hunger
	60% male		Acute appetite test		Cream of rice in skim milk	Fullness		NS fullness
	39.2 ± 13.1 y		Matched available CHO			Desire to eat		NS desire to eat
	BMI: 26.5 ± 3.1		Breakfast meal			Prospective consumption		NS prospective consumption
Costabile et al. (29)	n = 14	Healthy	Crossover	117 g WG wheat in pasta	Wheat pasta	Hunger	240 min	↓Hunger
	50% male		Acute appetite test			Satiety		NS satiety
	30 ± 2 y		Matched available CHO			Desire to eat		↓Desire to eat
	BMI: 22 ± 1		Breakfast meal			Energy intake		NS energy intake
			Energy intake at lunch
Lee et al. (30)	n = 21	Healthy	Crossover	40 g WG rye in porridge	Wheat bread (55 g portion)	Hunger	240 min	↓Hunger (55 g)
	52% male		Acute appetite test	55 g WG rye in porridge	Wheat bread (55 g portion)	Fullness		↑Fullness (55 g)
	38.6 ± 11.8 y		Matched calories			Desire to eat		NS desire to eat
	BMI: 24.9 ± 3.3		Breakfast meal
Sandberg et al. (31)	n = 2148% male25.3 ± 3.9 yBMI: 22.7 ± 2.3	Healthy	CrossoverSubsequent meal appetite testMatched available CHODinner mealEnergy intake at lunch	134.5 g WG rye from rye flour bread133.5 g WG rye from flour/kernel blend bread	Wheat bread	HungerSatietyDesire to eatEnergy intake	210 min	↓Hunger↑Satiety (rye flour bread)↓Desire to eat (rye flour bread)NS energy intake
Cioffi et al. (32)	n = 16	Healthy, overweight to obese	Crossover	100 g WG wheat in pasta	Wheat pasta	Hunger	240 min	NS hunger
	44% male	Healthy, overweight to obese	Acute appetite test			Fullness		↑Fullness
	44 ± 10 yBMI: 30.1 ± 2.8		Matched calories and volumeLunch meal			SatietyProspective consumptionEnergy intake		↑Satiety↓Prospective consumptionNS energy intake
Cioffi et al. (33)	n = 8	Healthy, normal weight to overweight	Crossover	100 g WG wheat in pasta	Wheat pasta	Hunger	240 min	NS hunger
	50% male		Acute appetite test			Fullness		NS fullness
	39 ± 14 yBMI: 24.7 ± 2.7		Matched calories and volumeLunch meal			SatietyProspective consumption		NS satietyNS prospective consumption
Sandberg et al. (34)	n = 19	Healthy	Crossover	88.8 g WG rye from bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	180 min	↓Hunger
	45% male		Subsequent meal appetite test			Satiety		↑Satiety
	25.6 ± 3.5 y		Matched available CHO			Desire to eat		↓Desire to eat
	BMI: 21.9 ± 1.9		Dinner meal
Geliebter et al. (35)	n = 36	Healthy	Crossover	93.6 g WG from oatmeal	Corn flakes	Hunger	180 min	↓Hunger
	50% male	50% normal weight	Acute appetite test			Fullness		↑Fullness
	26–31 y³	50% overweight	Matched calories and volumeBreakfast meal
	BMI normal weight: 23 ± 2 males; 22 ± 2 females		Matched calories and volumeBreakfast meal
	BMI overweight: 33 ± 3 males; 36 ± 7 females
Gonzalez-Anton et al. (36)	n = 23	Healthy	Crossover	90.1 g WG from wheat bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	180 min	NS hunger
Gonzalez-Anton et al. (36)	55% male	Normal weight to overweight	Acute appetite test			Fullness		NS fullness
	26 ± 1 y	Normal weight to overweight	Matched available CHO			Satiety		NS satiety
	BMI: 23.8 ± 0.5		Breakfast mealEnergy intake at lunch			Prospective consumption		NS prospective consumptionNS energy intake
						Energy intake
Johansson et al. (37)	n = 23	Healthy	Crossover	60 g WG from rye crisp bread	Wheat crisp bread	Hunger	240 min	↓Hunger
Johansson et al. (37)	30% male	Normal weight to overweight	Acute appetite test			Fullness		↑Fullness
	60.1 ± 12.1 y	Normal weight to overweight	Matched calories			Desire to eat		NS desire to eat
	BMI: 23.8 ± 3.4		Breakfast meal
Forsberg et al. (21)	n = 21	Healthy	Crossover	76 g WG from rye kernel crisp bread60.8 g WG from rye kernel crisp bread	Wheat bread (soft)	Hunger	240 min	↓Hunger
	47% male	Normal weight to overweight	Acute appetite test			Satiety		↑Satiety (60.8 g)
	39 ± 14 y	Normal weight to overweight	Matched calories			Desire to eat		↓Desire to eat
	BMI: 23.3 ± 3		Breakfast meal			Energy intake		↓Energy intake (60.8 g)
			Energy intake at lunch
Hartvigsen et al. (38)	n = 15	Metabolic syndrome	Crossover	90 g WG from rye kernel bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	270 min	↓Hunger
Hartvigsen et al. (38)	47% male		Acute appetite test			Fullness		↑Fullness
	62.8 ± 4.2 y		Matched available CHO			Satiety		↑Satiety
	BMI: 31.1 ± 3.2		Breakfast mealEnergy intake at lunch			Prospective consumption		↓Prospective consumption
						Energy intake		NS energy intake
Johansson et al. (39)	n = 19	Healthy	Crossover	96.8 g WG from boiled barley kernels	Wheat bread	Hunger	120 min	NS hunger
Johansson et al. (39)	32% male24.2 ± 1.9 y		Subsequent meal appetite testMatched available CHO	96.8 g WG from boiled barley kernels		SatietyDesire to eat		NS satietyNS desire to eat
	BMI: 22.3 ± 2		Dinner meal			Energy intake		↓Energy intake
			Energy intake at lunch
Rosen et al. (40)	n = 10	Healthy	Crossover	98.5 g WG from rye bread	Endosperm rye breadWheat bread	Hunger	120 min⁴	↓Hunger (porridge)
	50% male		Acute appetite test	106.6 g WG from rye kernel porridge	Endosperm rye breadWheat bread	Fullness		↑Fullness (porridge)
	26 ± 1.1 y		Matched available CHO	97.1 g WG from wheat kernel porridge		Desire to eat		↓Desire to eat (porridge)
	BMI: 22.6 ± 0.4		Breakfast meal			Energy intake		↓Energy intake (rye porridge)
			Energy intake at lunch
Rosen et al. (41)	n = 20	Healthy	Crossover	84.7 g WG from commercial rye bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	180 min	↓Hunger (Evolo)
	50% male		Acute appetite test	83.2 g WG from Amilo rye bread		Fullness		NS fullness
	26.7 ± 0.9 y		Matched available CHO	82 g WG from Evolo rye bread		Desire to eat		NS desire to eat
	BMI: 22.2 ± 0.39		Breakfast meal	82.7 g WG from Picasso rye bread
				80.1 g WG from Vicello rye bread
				82.8 g WG from Kaskelott rye bread
Rosen et al. (42)	n = 14	Healthy	Crossover	118.2 g WG from D. Zlote rye bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	180 min	↓Hunger (Nikita, Rekrut)
	50% male		Acute appetite test	125.7 g WG from H. Loire rye bread		Fullness		↑Fullness
	23.6 ± 0.5 y		Matched available CHO	120.7 g WG from Nikita rye bread		Desire to eat		NS desire to eat
	BMI: 22 ± 0.5		Breakfast meal	122.2 g WG from Rekrut rye bread
				122.9 g WG from Amilo rye bread
Kristensen et al. (43)	n = 16	Healthy	Crossover	83.6 g WG from wheat pasta	Wheat bread	Hunger	180 min	NS hunger
	38% male		Acute appetite test		Wheat pasta	Fullness		NS fullness
	24.1 ± 3.8 yBMI: 21.7 ± 2.2		Matched available CHO and caloriesBreakfast mealEnergy intake at lunch			SatietyProspective consumptionEnergy intake		NS satietyNS prospective consumptionNS energy intake
						SatietyProspective consumptionEnergy intake
Solah et al. (22)	n = 22	Healthy	Crossover	53.1 g WG from boiled bulgur kernels	HA rice	Hunger	240 min	NS hunger
	Gender, age, BMI not reported		Acute appetite test	53.1 g WG from steamed bulgur kernels		Fullness		NR fullness
	Gender, age, BMI not reported		Matched calories and volume	53.1 g WG from boiled Turkish bulgur kernels		Desire to eat		NR desire to eat
			Breakfast meal	53.1 g WG from boiled Turkish bulgur kernels		Prospective consumption		NR prospective consumption
Rosen et al. (44)	n = 12	Healthy	Crossover	66.1 g WG from rye bread	Endosperm rye breadWheat breadEndosperm rye porridgeWheat porridge	Satiety	180 min	NS satiety
	75% male		Acute appetite test	51.1 g WG from rye porridge
	25.3 ± 0.8 y		Matched available CHO
	BMI: 23.1 ± 0.6		Breakfast meal
Hlebowicz et al. (45)	n = 12	Healthy	Crossover	42.5 g WG from oat flakes	Corn flakes	Satiety	120 min	NS satiety
	50% male		Acute appetite test
	28 ± 4 y		Matched calories and volume
	BMI: 22 ± 2		Breakfast meal
Granfeldt et al. (46)	n = 10	Healthy	Crossover	89 g WG from hull-less barley kernel porridge76.2 g WG from hulled barley kernel porridge90.6 g WG from hull-less HA barley kernel porridge87.7 g WG from hulled HA barley kernel porridge	Wheat bread	Satiety	180 min	↑Satiety (hull-less porridge, hull-less HA porridge, hulled HA porridge)
	50% male		Acute appetite test
	34 ± 8 y		Matched available CHO
	BMI: 21.2 ± 2		Breakfast meal
				79.1 g WG from hulled barley flour porridge
				90.3 g WG from hull-less HA barley flour porridge
Hamad et al. (47)	n = 20	Healthy and type 2 diabetes	Crossover	70 g WG from long-grain brown rice	Long-grain white rice	Hunger	120 min	NS all outcomes (for type 2 diabetes)NR hungerNR fullnessNR desire to eatNS prospective consumption
	40% male	Healthy and type 2 diabetes	Acute appetite test		Long-grain white rice	Fullness
	25.4 ± 2 y male		Matched available CHO			Desire to eat
	24.7 ± 1.9 y female		Breakfast meal			Prospective consumption
	BMI: 23.02 ± 1.62 male; 22.39 ± 1.32 female					Prospective consumption
Roager et al. (13)	n = 50	Overweight or obese, ≥1 of: impaired fasting glucose, dyslipidemia, hypertension	Crossover	Target ≥75 g WG/d from variety of WG foods	Target <10 g WG/d from variety of RG foods	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake
	36% male		Daily consumption for 8 wk	Target ≥75 g WG/d from variety of WG foods
	48.6 ± 11.1 y		Ad libitum intake
	BMI: 28.9 ± 3.6		Energy intake over the day
Suhr et al. (48)	n = 24/arm	Overweight to moderately obese	Parallel	No target intake	No target intake	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake
	WG rye: 46% male	Overweight to moderately obese	Daily consumption for 6 wk	Mean intake WG rye: 124 ± 11.8 g/d	Mean intake WG: 5.4 ± 12.6 g/d
	53 ± 8.9 y		Ad libitum intake	Mean intake WG wheat: 145 ± 12.1 g/d	Mean intake WG: 5.4 ± 12.6 g/d
	BMI: 28 ± 1.9		Energy intake over the day
	WG wheat: 42% male; 48.2 ± 9.9 y; BMI: 27.7 ± 1.9
	RG control: 50% male; 51.8 ± 9 y; BMI: 27.8 ± 2
Ibrugger et al. (49)	n = 12	Healthy	Crossover	90 g WG from rye kernel porridge	Wheat bread	Energy intake	NA	↓Energy intake
	100% male25.6 ± 3.9 y		Matched available CHO and calories
	BMI: 23.1 ± 1.2		Dinner meal
			Energy intake at lunch
Luhovyy et al. (50)	n = 30	Healthy	Crossover	50 g WG from HA corn cookie	Wheat cookie	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake
	100% male		Matched calories
	22.9 ± 0.6 y		Preload to lunch
	BMI: 22.6 ± 0.3		Energy intake at lunch
Isaksson et al. (51)	n = 24	Healthy	Crossover	55 g WG from rye porridge	Wheat bread	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake
	21% male	Normal weight to moderately overweight	Daily consumption for 3 wk— breakfast meal onlyBreakfast meals Matched calories
	33 ± 13 yBMI: 23.4 ± 2.2	Normal weight to moderately overweight
			Energy intake over the day
Zafar et al. (52)	n = 12	Healthy	Crossover	87 g WG from oatmeal	Wheat bread	Energy intake	NA	↓Energy intake
	0% males		Matched available CHO
	Age, BMI not reported		Breakfast meal
	Age, BMI not reported		Energy intake at lunch
Anderson et al. (53)	Study 1:	Healthy	Crossover	50 g WG from HA corn in soup	HA corn starch in soup	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake (30 min)
	n = 17		Matched calories and volume		HA corn starch in soup			↓Energy intake (120 min)
	100% males		Preload to lunch
	20.2 ± 0.1 y		Energy intake at lunch (Study 1 = 30 min; Study 2 = 120 min)
	BMI: 22.5 ± 0.3
	Study 2: n = 16
	100% males
	20.9 ± 0.3 y
	BMI: 22.5 ± 0.4
Schroeder et al. (54)	n = 50	Healthy	Crossover	84 g WG from barley hot cereal and snack mix78.5 g WG from wheat hot cereal and snack mix	Rice hot cereal	Hunger	240 min	NS hunger
	26% male	Normal weight to obese	Acute appetite test			Fullness		NS fullness
	31 ± 11 y		Matched calories and volume			Desire to eat		NS desire to eat
	BMI: 23 ± 3		Breakfast meal and mid-morning snack			Prospective consumption		NS prospective consumption NS energy intake
			Energy intake at lunch			Energy intake
Isaksson et al. (55)	n = 22	Healthy	Crossover	162 g WG from rye porridge (breakfast) and wheat pasta (lunch)62 g WG from rye porridge (breakfast only)	Wheat bread (breakfast) and wheat pasta (lunch)	Energy intake		NS energy intake
	36% male	Normal weight to moderately overweight	Matched calories
	40.7 ± 14.7 y		Breakfast and lunch meal
	BMI: 23.2 ± 2.4		Energy intake at dinner
Berti et al. (56)	Study 1: buckwheat	Healthy	Crossover	Study 1: 111.3 g WG from buckwheat pasta (large portion)55.7 g WG from buckwheat pasta (small portion)Study 2: 419.8 g WG from quinoa risotto (large portion)211.6 g WG from quinoa risotto (small portion)	Study 1: wheat pasta (large and small portions)Study 2: White rice (large and small portions)	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake
	n = 14		Matched volume
	100% males		Mid-morning snack
	24 ± 2.6 y		Energy intake at lunch
	BMI: 22.3 ± 2.7
	Study 2: quinoa
	n = 12
	100% males
	25.4 ± 2.2 y
	BMI: 23 ± 1.9
Breen et al. (57)⁵	n = 10	Type 2 diabetes	Crossover	54.1 g WG from buttermilk wheat bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	270 min	NS hunger
	60% male		Acute appetite test	135.4 g WG from pumpernickel rye bread		Fullness		NS fullness
	53.9 ± 5.5 y		Matched available CHO			Satiety		NS satiety
	BMI: 35.1 ± 7.5		Breakfast meal			Prospective consumption		NS prospective consumption
Holt et al. (58)⁵	n = 10	Healthy	Crossover	79.8 g WG from wheat bread	Wheat bread	Hunger	120 min	NR hunger
	30% males		Acute appetite test			Fullness		NR fullness
	23.5 ± 6.2 y		Matched calories
	BMI: 22.1 ± 1.3		Breakfast Meal
Nilsson et al. (59)⁵	n = 17	Healthy	Crossover	105.3 g WG from barley kernel bread	Wheat bread	Satiety	180 min	↑Satiety (high β-glucan barley bread)
	65% males		Subsequent meal appetite test	124.4 g WG from cut barley kernel bread				↑Satiety (high β-glucan barley bread)
	25.9 ± 3.2 y		Matched available CHO	139.3 g WG from HA barley bread
	BMI: 22.5 ± 2.1		Dinner meal	253.9 g WG from high β-glucan barley bread
				52.6 g WG from barley kernel bread
Bodinham et al. (60)⁵	n = 14	Healthy	Crossover	48 g WG from wheat bread	Wheat bread	Energy intake	NA	NS energy intake
	36% male		Daily consumption for 3 wk
	26 ± 1.4 y		Energy intake over the day
	BMI: 21. 8 ± 0.8

CHO, carbohydrate; HA, high-amylose; NA, not applicable; NR, not reported; NS, not significant (P > 0.05); RG, refined grain; WG, whole grain.

Reported or calculated values.

Range of means provided because age reported by gender and weight status.

⁴

120 min measurement = AUC_0–60min + AUC_60–120min

⁵

Included in systematic review but data not available to include in meta-analysis.