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Pooled dose–response association (from 2-stage random-effects dose–response meta-analysis) between caffeinated coffee consumption (cups per day) and cardiovascular disease incidence/mortality (A) and type 2 diabetes incidence (B). United States, 1987–2017. Coffee consumption was modeled with restricted cubic spline. In the spline model, a binary term (consumption/no consumption) was added to take into account spike at zero for coffee.
