TABLE 2.
Pooled adjusted RRs and corresponding 95% CIs1 of selected outcomes according to caffeinated coffee consumption (cups per day). United States, 1987–2017
| Caffeinated coffee consumption, cups/d | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
| Outcome | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) |
| CVD incidence/mortality (10 cohorts) | 0.91 (0.85, 0.96) | 0.84 (0.78, 0.91) | 0.82 (0.75, 0.90) | 0.83 (0.75, 0.92) | 0.85 (0.75, 0.96) | 0.87 (0.74, 1.02) | 0.89 (0.73, 1.08) | 0.91 (0.71, 1.16) |
| T2D incidence (11 cohorts) | 0.96 (0.91, 1.02) | 0.89 (0.82, 0.97) | 0.83 (0.75, 0.91) | 0.77 (0.69, 0.86) | 0.71 (0.63, 0.81) | 0.66 (0.58, 0.77) | 0.62 (0.52, 0.73) | 0.57 (0.48, 0.69) |
| HCC incidence (10 cohorts2) | 1.02 (0.72, 1.45) | 0.82 (0.52, 1.29) | 0.71 (0.52, 0.96) | 0.61 (0.47, 0.80) | 0.53 (0.35, 0.78) | 0.45 (0.25, 0.81) | 0.39 (0.18, 0.86) | 0.34 (0.12, 0.93) |
| Endometrial cancer incidence (4 cohorts) | 0.94 (0.84, 1.06) | 0.91 (0.81, 1.02) | 0.82 (0.73, 0.92) | 0.74 (0.64, 0.85) | 0.67 (0.55, 0.81) | 0.60 (0.47, 0.77) | 0.55 (0.40, 0.74) | 0.49 (0.34, 0.71) |
| Melanoma incidence (4 cohorts) | 0.91 (0.81, 1.03) | 0.89 (0.77, 1.03) | 0.86 (0.75, 0.98) | 0.83 (0.72, 0.95) | 0.79 (0.67, 0.94) | 0.76 (0.62, 0.95) | 0.73 (0.56, 0.96) | 0.71 (0.51, 0.98) |
| Nonmelanoma skin cancer incidence (3 cohorts) | 0.96 (0.93, 0.98) | 0.92 (0.89, 0.94) | 0.88 (0.86, 0.91) | 0.85 (0.82, 0.88) | 0.82 (0.78, 0.86) | 0.78 (0.73, 0.84) | 0.75 (0.69, 0.83) | 0.73 (0.65, 0.82) |
From 2-stage random-effects dose–response meta-analysis. Coffee consumption was modeled with restricted cubic spline. In the spline model, a binary term (consumption/no consumption) was added to take into account spike at zero for coffee. CVD, cardiovascular disease; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; T2D, type 2 diabetes.
The Liver Cancer Pooling Project (LCPP) included the National Institutes of Health-American Association of Retired Persons (NIH-AARP) Diet and Health Study, Agricultural Health Study (AHS), United States Radiologic Technologists Study (USRTS), Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial, Women's Health Study (WHS), Cancer Prevention Study-II (CPS-II) Nutrition Cohort, Iowa Women's Health Study (IWHS), Black Women's Health Study (BWHS), and Women's Health Initiative (WHI).