Table 1.
Clinical features among COVID-19 patients without, or with parasite co-infection.
| Characteristic | All patients n = 751 | Without parasite n = 467 | With parasite n = 284 | p-Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Socio–demographic features: | ||||
| Gender | ||||
| Male | 480 (63.9%) | 307 (65.7%) | 173 (60.9%) | 0.011 |
| Female (not pregnant) | 257 (34.2%) | 147 (31.5%) | 110 (38.7%) | |
| Female (pregnant) | 14 (1.9%) | 13 (2.8%) | 1 (0.4%) | |
| Age in years | 37 (28–50) | 40 (30–57) | 32 (25–42) | 0.064 |
| Age group [years] | ||||
| < 24 | 92 (12.3%) | 42 (9.0%) | 50 (17.6%) | 0.0001 |
| 24 – 44 | 398 (53.0%) | 224 (48.0%) | 174 (61.3%) | |
| 45 – 59 | 140 (18.6%) | 99 (21.2%) | 41 (14.4%) | |
| ≥ 60 | 121 (16.1%) | 102 (21.8%) | 19 (6.7%) | |
| Residence | ||||
| Rural | 141(18.8%) | 68 (14.6%) | 73 (25.7%) | 0.0001 |
| Urban | 593 (79.0%) | 393 (84.2%) | 200 (70.4%) | |
| Undetermined | 17 (2.3%) | 6 (1.3%) | 11 (3.9%) | |
| Education level | ||||
| ≤ Primary | 215 (28.6%) | 124 (26.5%) | 91 (32.0%) | 0.210 |
| Secondary | 203 (27.0%) | 126 (27.0%) | 77 (27.1%) | |
| College/university | 333 (44.3%) | 217 (46.5%) | 116 (40.9%) | |
| Occupation | ||||
| Unemployed | 250 (33.3%) | 149 (31.9%) | 101 (35.6%) | 0.587 |
| Employed | 421 (56.0%) | 267 (57.2%) | 154 (54.2%) | |
| Health care workers | 80 (10.7%) | 51 (10.9%) | 29 (10.2%) | |
| Clinical symptoms and signs: | ||||
| Fever | 248 (33.0%) | 200 (42.8%) | 48 (16.9%) | <0.0001 |
| Dyspnea | 199 (26.5%) | 176 (37.7%) | 23 (8.1%) | <0.0001 |
| Cough (any type) | 339 (45.1%) | 259 (55.5%) | 80 (28.2%) | <0.0001 |
| Non–productive cough | 148 (19.7%) | 94 (20.1%) | 54 (19.0%) | 0.0001 |
| Productive cough | 191 (25.4%) | 165 (35.3%) | 26 (9.2%) | |
| Hemoptysis | 21 (2.8%) | 19 (4.1%) | 2 (0.7%) | 0.007 |
| Chest pain | 47 (6.3%) | 39 (8.4%) | 8 (2.8%) | 0.002 |
| Sore throat | 70 (9.3%) | 54 (11.6%) | 16 (5.6%) | 0.007 |
| Head ache | 223 (29.7%) | 181 (38.8%) | 42 (14.8%) | <0.0001 |
| Nasal congestion | 42 (5.6%) | 23 (4.9%) | 19 (6.7%) | 0.307 |
| Loss of smell and/or taste | 59 (7.9%) | 36 (7.7%) | 23 (8.1%) | 0.847 |
| Nausea/vomiting | 76 (10.1%) | 67 (14.4%) | 9 (3.2%) | <0.0001 |
| Abdominal pain | 44 (5.9%) | 35 (7.5%) | 9 (3.2%) | 0.014 |
| Diarrhea | 39 (5.2%) | 32 (6.9%) | 7 (2.5%) | 0.009 |
| Myalgia | 112 (14.9%) | 98 (21.0%) | 14 (4.9%) | <0.0001 |
| Body mass index | ||||
| 18.5–24.9 | 668 (88.9%) | 399 (85.4%) | 269 (94.7%) | <0.0001 |
| <18.5 | 4 (0.5%) | 3 (0.6%) | 1 (0.4%) | |
| 25.0–29.9 | 56 (7.5%) | 42 (9.0) | 14 (4.9%) | |
| ≥30.0 | 23 (3.1%) | 23 (4.9%) | 0 (0.0%) | |
| Temperature > 37.3 °C | 50 (6.7%) | 41 (8.8%) | 9 (3.2%) | 0.003 |
| Temperature | 36.0 (36.0–36.9) | 36.2 (36.0–37.0) | 36.0 (36–36.7) | <0.00001 |
| Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 120 (110–130) | 120 (110–130) | 115 (110–125) | 0.0009 |
| Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 75 (68–80) | 75 (68–80) | 75 (68–80) | 0.8395 |
| Respiratory rate (breaths/minute) | 22 (20–25) | 23 (21–28) | 22 (19–23) | <0.00001 |
| Heart rate (beats/minute) | 85 (76–94) | 86 (78–96) | 83 (76–90) | <0.00001 |
| Laboratory data* | ||||
| Lymphocyte, x109/L | 1.2 (0.8–1.6) | 1.2 (0.8–1.6) | 1.3 (0.9–1.7) | 0.7008 |
| Hematocrit,% | 44.0 (40.1–46.9) | 44.2 (40.6–47.4) | 42.4 (38.2–45.7) | 0.0296 |
| Platelet count, x109 /L | 217 (163–294) | 215 (159–288) | 247(204–334) | 0.0488 |
| Alanine aminotransferase concentration, U/L | 40 (25–67) | 40 (25–67) | 48 (36–55) | 0.6841 |
| Creatinine concentration, mg/dL | 0.87 (0.68–1.04) | 0.88 (0.70–1.04) | 0.62 (0.48–1.47) | 0.0135 |
| Comorbidities | ||||
| Comorbidity (at least 1) | 216 (28.8%) | 178 (38.1%) | 38 (13.4%) | <0.0001 |
| Non–communicable disease (NCDs) comorbidities | 179 (23.8%) | 150 (32.1%) | 29 (10.2%) | <0.0001 |
| Diabetes | 97 (12.9%) | 84 (18.0%) | 13 (4.6%) | <0.0001 |
| Hypertension | 87 (11.6%) | 74 (15.9%) | 4.6 (4.5%) | <0.0001 |
| Cardio vascular diseases | 19 (2.5%) | 18 (3.9%) | 1 (0.4%) | 0.003 |
| Chronic obstructive lung diseases and asthma | 23 (3.1%) | 19 (4.1%) | 4 (1.4%) | 0.040 |
| Chronic liver disease | 8 (1.1%) | 8 (1.7%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.027 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 11 (1.5%) | 9 (1.9%) | 2 (0.7%) | 0.176 |
| Surgery cases | 15 (2.0%) | 12 (2.6%) | 3 (1.1%) | 0.151 |
| Communicable disease comorbidities | ||||
| HIV | 17 (2.3%) | 14 (0.3.0%) | 3 (1.1%) | 0.083 |
| Tuberculosis | 1 (0.1%) | 1 (0.2%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.435 |
| Outcomes | ||||
| Admission to ICU | 56 (7.5%) | 44 (9.4%) | 12 (4.2%) | 0.009 |
| Supplemental oxygen | 243 (32.4%) | 216 (46.3%) | 27 (9.5%) | <0.0001 |
| Invasive mechanical ventilation | 53 (7.1%) | 46 (9.9%) | 7 (2.5%) | <0.0001 |
| Death | 11 (1.5%) | 11 (2.4%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.009 |
| Severe COVID–19 | 255 (34.0%) | 228 (48.8%) | 27 (9.5%) | <0.0001 |
Data are expressed as n (%) or median (IQR). p values are from χ² test, or Fisher's Exact test (for categorical variables), and Mann-Whitney U, or Kruskal-Wallis tests (for continuous variables), as appropriate.
*Data missing for 490, 487, 492, 622, and 540 patients for lymphocyte, hematocrit, platelet, alanine aminotransferase, and creatinine concentrations, respectively.