Fig. 1. Extent of the Spanish Empire in the tropics.

Map showing the maximum extent of the Spanish Empire in the tropics, including major colonial settlements and, for the Americas, regions impacted by major epidemics by 1600 ce. Dates in brackets indicate the approximate timing of colonization. Data on Spanish-controlled regions in the Philippines were from ref. ⁹³. Data on epidemics were from ref. ⁹⁴.