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. 2021 Jul 30;12:4648. doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-24907-x

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — In this multi-phase experiment, participants act as art dealers choosing paintings that are later sold in an auction. In the Deliberation phase, participants deliberate and decide which painting they would like to purchase to maximize their profits from the auction. After all decisions are made they learn the auction outcomes in the Outcome Learning phase. Only their selected paintings are presented alongside a colored frame and the profit they made in the auction: either gain (green frame) or no gain (red frame). Then, in the Final Decisions phase, participants are given a choice between two paintings and are asked to choose the most valuable. Unbeknownst to them, the decision pairs are either two previously chosen paintings (rewarded and unrewarded in the auction, denoted as S_chosen+ and S_chosen0, respectively) or two previously unchosen paintings (initially presented with S_chosen+ and S_chosen0, denoted as S_unchosen+ and S_unchosen0, respectively). The two pair types are randomly intermixed. In the Surprise Memory phase, participants are tested for associative memory of the deliberation pairs. They are presented with either the exact pairs from the Deliberation phase (intact) or pairs that include chosen and unchosen paintings that were not previously presented together (recombined). Experiment 1 included an Outcome Estimation phase, wherein participants are asked to estimate the auction profit of all paintings, including those they did not choose. Chosen and unchosen paintings are randomly intermixed. The study additionally included a pre-task and a post-task liking ratings of the paintings, detailed in the “Method” section. Stimuli were art images depicting people, objects, and scenes, randomly intermixed across conditions⁷⁷. A subset of the stimuli are presented here. The art images in the figure include detailed images of the artworks PH-672 (1923), PP-241 (1936), and PH-269 (1941) by Clyfford Still, courtesy the Clyfford Still Museum, Denver, CO © 2021 City and County of Denver / ARS, NY, and the artworks Self Portrait (1900), A Farmbuilding (1900-1901), Farm Near Duivendrecht (1916) by Piet Mondrian, courtesy of Mondrian/Holtzman Trust © 2021. See Supplementary Fig. 1 for the full images.