TABLE 2.
Characteristics of included studies (n = 25 RCTs)
| Reference | Study design | Participants (health status, number of participants, sex, BMI, age) | Intervention vs. control | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| van Amelsvoort & Weststrate, 1992 (32) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 22M24.1 ± 0.5 kg/m240 ± 2.2 y | CHO 37.1 g high amylose rice (45%) vs. low amylose rice (0%) | Glucose ↔Insulin ↓Subjective satiety ↑ |
| Behall & Hallfrisch, 2002 (33) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 13M + 12FM: 27.9 ± 0.7 kg/m241.2 ± 2.4 y;F: 27.1 ± 0.9 kg/m241.0 ± 2.4 y | CHO 1 g/1 kg body weight; high amylose starch bread (70%) vs. low amylose starch bread (30%) | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓ |
| Hospers et al., 1994 (34) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 16M23.6 ± 0.4 kg/m241.8 ± 2.0 y | CHO 34.5 g high amylose pasta (70%) vs. low amylose pasta (25.9%) | GlucoseInsulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔ |
| Zenel & Stewart, 2015 (35) | RCT, Single-blinded | Healthy 9M + 9F20.1–26.8 kg/m221–37 y | CHO not given high amylose rice (30% of dry basis) vs. low amylose rice (9.7% dry basis) | Glucose ↓Insulin ↔Subjective satiety ↔ |
| Ang et al., 2020 (36) | RCT, Single-blinded | Healthy 4M + 8WM: 21.25 ± 2.29 kg/m222.25 ± 2.5 yF: 21.25 ± 2.29 kg/m222.25 ± 1.67 y | CHO 50 g noodles made by high amylose wheat flour (45%) vs. noodles made by low amylose wheat flour (15% and 20%) | Glucose ↓ |
| Petropoulou et al., 2020 (37) | RCT, Double-blinded | Healthy 12Normal BMI18–65 y | CHO 50 g BC1/19 rr mutant peas vs. BC1/19 RR wide type peas | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓GIP ↔GLP-1↔ |
| Burton & Lightowler, 2006 (38) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 4M + 6F23.9 ± 2 kg/m250.4 ± 9.1 y | CHO 50 g breads with less proving time (bread 1,2) vs. bread with more proving time (bread 3,4) | Glucose ↔Subjective satiety ↑ |
| Eelderink et al., 2015 (39) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 10M22 ± 0.2 kg/m224 ± 0.6 y | CHO 50 g flat bread (less-gelatinized) vs. control bread (more-gelatinized) | GlucoseInsulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔GIP ↔GLP-1 ↔CCK ↓ |
| Gustafsson et al., 1995 (40) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 10M20.2–28.8 kg/m236–45 y | CHO 59.7 g raw carrots vs. microwaved carrots | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔ |
| Jenkins et al., 1982 (41) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 2M + 6F94 ± 5% desirable weight,29 ± 8 y | CHO 50 g 20 min-boiled lentils vs. 1 h-boiled lentils | Boiled 20 min vs. 1 hGlucose ↓ |
| Jung et al., 2009 (42) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 12FHeight: 160.5 ± 5.0cmWeight: 55.5 ± 7.4 kg21.8 ± 2.7 y | CHO 50 g uncooked rice powder (3.5% gelatinization) vs. cooked rice (76.9% gelatinization) | Glucose ↔Insulin ↔ |
| Panlasigui et al., 1991 (43) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 4M + 7F100 ± 10% ideal body weight36.5 ± 6.75 y | CHO 50 g less gelatinized rice (IR62, IR36) vs. gelatinized rice (IR42) | IR62 vs. IR42Glucose ↓Insulin ↔IR36 vs. IR42Glucose ↓Insulin ↔ |
| van Amelsvoort & Weststrate, 1992 (32) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 22M24.1 ± 0.5 kg/m240 ± 2.2 y | CHO 37.1 g reheated rice vs. freshly cooked rice | GlucoseInsulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔ |
| Sonia et al., 2015 (44) | RCT, Single-blinded | Healthy 5M + 10F22.2 ± 1.8 kg/m230.6 ± 5.2 y | CHO 42.5 g reheated rice vs. freshly cooked rice | Glucose ↓ |
| Greffeuille et al., 2015 (45) | RCT, Single-blinded | Healthy 8M + 7F22.4 ± 1.8 kg/m224 ± 2.9 y | CHO 26.6 g faba bean pasta processed by low temp. vs. faba bean pasta processed by very high temp. | Glucose ↔Insulin ↔Subjective Satiety ↔ |
| Anguah et al., 2014 (46) | RCT, Double-blinded | Healthy 4M + 8F23.3 ± 3.1 kg/m228 ± 10 y | CHO 50 g whole lentils vs. blended lentils | Glucose ↔Subjective satiety ↔ |
| Clegg et al., 2013 (47) | RCT, Non-blinded | Healthy 6M + 6FM:23.5 ± 2.9 kg/m2F: 22.1 ± 2.8 kg/m2M + F: 28.7 ± 5.9 y | CHO 34 gMixed meal of rice, chicken, carrots, peas, onion, mushroom, and celerySolid mixed meal vs. chunky mixed meal (semi-blended) vs. smooth mixed meal (blended) | Solid vs. liquidGlucose ↓Subjective satiety ↓chunky vs. liquidGlucose ↓Subjective satiety ↔ |
| O'Donnell et al., 1989 (48) | RCT, BNR | Healthy ileostomy4M + 5FNormal BMIAge 30–69 y | CHO = 52.4 gScone made by coarse flour vs. scone made by fine flour | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓ |
| Edwards et al., 2015 (49) | RCT, Single-blinded | Healthy ileostomy2M + 7F23.9 ± 3.9 kg/m247.8 ± 18.0 y | CHO 57.8 gWheat porridgeCoarse (>2 mm) vs. smooth (<0.2 mm) | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓GIP ↓GLP-1 ↔ |
| Eelderink et al., 2017 (50) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 10M22 ± 0.2 kg/m224 ± 0.6 y | CHO 50 g wheat bread with large particles vs. wheat bread with small particles | GlucoseInsulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔GLP-1 ↓GIP ↔CCK ↔ |
| Holt & Miller, 1994 (51) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 5M + 5F23.1 ± 0.5 kg/m222.3 ± 0.8 y | CHO 57.6 g grains served at 4 degrees of milling: whole grain, crack grain (combined as large particles group) vs. coarse flour + fine flour (combined as small particles group) | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓Subjective satiety ↑ |
| Jenkins et al., 1982 (41) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 2M + 6F94 ± 5% desirable weight,29 ± 8 y | CHO 50 g whole lentils vs. blended lentils | Glucose ↓ |
| Johansson et al., 2015 (52) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 7M + 16F22.8 ± 1.1 kg/m259.1 ± 14.7 y | CHO 50 g fermented whole grain rye crisp bread vs. unfermented whole grain rye crisp bread | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔ |
| Mackie et al., 2017 (53) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 10M22 ± 0.2 kg/m224 ± 0.6 y | CHO 50 gWheat bread with large particles vs. wheat bread with small particles | GlucoseInsulin ↓Subjective satiety ↔GLP-1 ↓GIP ↔CCK ↔ |
| Petropoulou et al., 2020 (37) | RCT, Double-blinded | Healthy 12Normal BMI18–65 y | CHO 50 g whole peas vs. pea flours | Glucose ↓Insulin ↓GIP↓GLP-1↔ |
| Ranawana et al., 2014 (54) | RCT, Non-blinded | Healthy 8M + 7F20.5 ± 4 kg/m226 ± 6 y | CHO 50 g rice with 15 chews vs. with 30 chews | Glucose ↓ |
| Read et al., 1986 (55) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 4M + 8FNormal BMIAge 19–22 y | CHO = 50Apple, rice, potato, and sweetcorn no chews vs. thorough chews | Glucose ↓ |
| Zhu et al., 2013 (56) | RCT, BNR | Healthy 21M24.8 ± 0.6 kg/m224 ± 1 y | CHO 51 g pizza 15 chews vs. 40 chews | Glucose ↔Insulin ↔GIP ↔CCK ↔Ghrelin ↔Subjective satiety ↔Energy intake ↔ |
Double arrows (↔) indicate no significant difference in iAUC between the intervention and control groups, downward arrows (↓) indicate the iAUC for the intervention group is significantly smaller than that for the control group, and upward arrows (↑) indicate the iAUC for the intervention group is significantly bigger than that of the control group. Abbreviations: BC1/19RR, wild type peas; BC1/19rr, naturally mutating peas in the starch branching enzyme I gene (SBEI); BNR, blinding not reported; CCK, cholecystokinin; CHO, carbohydrate; GIP, gastric inhibitory peptide; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; iAUC, incremental AUC; IR36, IR42, IR62, rice varieties; RCT, randomized crossover trial.