Table 1.
Bivariate associations of in utero GDM exposure with background characteristics of 592 EPOCH participants
| Characteristic | GDM-exposed | Unexposed | p |
|---|---|---|---|
| n | 92 | 500 | – |
| Maternal characteristics | |||
| Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m2) | 27.8 ± 6.3 | 25.4 ± 5.8 | 0.001 |
| Maternal pre-pregnancy weight status (%) | 0.007 | ||
| Underweight (BMI <18.5 kg/m2) | 1.4 | 3.9 | |
| Normal weight (BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2) | 36.5 | 53.8 | |
| Overweight (BMI 25.0–29.9 kg/m2) | 28.4 | 24.0 | |
| Obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) | 33.8 | 18.4 | |
| Maternal education level (%) | 0.50 | ||
| <High school | 5.4 | 3.4 | |
| High school or equivalent | 15.2 | 18.4 | |
| >High school | 79.4 | 78.2 | |
| Smoked during pregnancy (%) | 16.2 | 7.3 | 0.005 |
| GDM treatment (%) | 93.5 | – | |
| Diet and/or exercise | 66.3 | – | |
| Diet and/or exercise with insulin, or insulin only | 26.2 | – | |
| None | 6.5 | – | |
| Child’s characteristics | |||
| Female (%) | 46.5 | 50.9 | 0.46 |
| Race/ethnicity (%) | 0.05 | ||
| Non-Hispanic white | 60.6 | 45.4 | |
| Hispanic | 30.3 | 40.0 | |
| Non-Hispanic black | 5.1 | 8.5 | |
| Non-Hispanic other | 4.0 | 6.1 | |
| Characteristics at T1 | |||
| Age (years) | 9.5 ± 1.7 | 10.6 ± 1.4 | <0.0001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 18.9 ± 4.7 | 18.9 ± 4.5 | 0.91 |
| BMI z scorea | 0.37 ± 1.33 | 0.24 ± 1.21 | 0.33 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 65.4 ± 12.9 | 65.5 ± 12.1 | 0.98 |
| Skinfold sum (mm)b | 46.0 ± 25.5 | 44.3 ± 25.4 | 0.54 |
| SAT fat area (mm2) | 125.3 ± 107.2 | 119.9 ± 108.5 | 0.67 |
| VAT fat area (mm2) | 24.1 ± 18.6 | 22.1 ± 16.0 | 0.30 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/l) | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.6 ± 0.5 | 0.006 |
| Fasting insulin (pmol/l) | 66.1 ± 49.8 | 78.4 ± 57.2 | 0.05 |
| HOMA-IR | 1.88 ± 1.43 | 2.31 ± 1.68 | 0.02 |
| Leptin (nmol/l) | 27.1 ± 24.6 | 25.4 ± 25.8 | 0.57 |
| Adiponectin (μmol/l) | 77.7 ± 43.5 | 78.1 ± 37.1 | 0.93 |
| Pubertal stage (%)c | 0.001 | ||
| Tanner stage 1 | 71.7 | 51.5 | |
| Tanner stage 2/3 | 22.8 | 42.3 | |
| Tanner stage 4/5 | 5.4 | 6.2 | |
| Energy expenditure (METs/day)d | 1.85 ± 0.32 | 1.90 ± 0.31 | 0.13 |
| Total energy intake (kJ/per day) | 72,974 ± 1916 | 7523 ± 2351 | 0.38 |
| Characteristics at T2 | |||
| Age (years) | 15.9 ± 1.0 | 16.8 ± 1.2 | <0.0001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 23.4 ± 5.0 | 23.6 ± 5.7 | 0.78 |
| BMI z scorea | 0.54 ± 1.05 | 0.38 ± 1.13 | 0.26 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 80.9 ± 11.5 | 80.8 ± 13.6 | 0.92 |
| Skinfold sum (mm)b | 37.0 ± 22.2 | 34.5 ± 21.3 | 0.37 |
| SAT fat area (mm2) | 200.8 ± 141.0 | 200.7 ± 153.5 | 0.99 |
| VAT fat area (mm2) | 32.9 ± 19.2 | 32.8 ± 22.4 | 0.98 |
| Fasting glucose (mmol/l) | 5.2 ± 2.2 | 5.0 ± 0.9 | 0.16 |
| Fasting insulin (pmol/l) | 124.8 ± 70.9 | 114.7 ± 80.1 | 0.33 |
| HOMA-IR | 4.31 ± 3.76 | 3.85 ± 4.77 | 0.44 |
| Leptin (nmol/l) | 40.0 ± 40.0 | 41.9 ± 45.6 | 0.74 |
| Adiponectin (μmol/l) | 65.7 ± 32.8 | 64.1 ± 34.7 | 0.72 |
| Pubertal stage (%)c | 0.85 | ||
| Tanner stage 1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | |
| Tanner stage 2/3 | 5.6 | 6.2 | |
| Tanner stage 4/5 | 94.4 | 93.8 | |
| Energy expenditure (METs/day)d | 1.85 ± 0.27 | 1.91 ± 0.32 | 0.12 |
| Total energy intake (kJ/per day) | 7042± 3209 | 6916 ± 3033 | 0.76 |
Data are presented as mean ± SD or %
a
Age- and sex-specific z scores according to the WHO Growth Reference for children aged 65–19 years [37]
b
Sum of the subscapular, suprailiac and tricep skinfold thicknesses
c
Based on breast development for girls and pubic hair development for boys
d
Mean metabolic equivalents/day over a 3-day period
Data were analysed using an independent t test for continuous variables and a Pearson’s χ2 test for categorical variables